UC-NRLF 


SB    30D    7ifl 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


ttm 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 


Class 


PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION 
PRACTICALLY  APPLIED 


BY 

J.    M.    GREENWOOD,   A.  M. 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS,    KANSAS   CITY,   MO. 


NEW  YORK 
APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1899 


"^ 


COPYBIGHT,  1887, 

Bt  d.  appleton  and  company. 


THE  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


The  motive  that  induced  the  author  to  submit  this 
little  volume  for  publication  is  to  help  the  teachers  of 
this  country  to  do  better  and  more  intelligent  work  in 
the  schoolroom. 

It  assumes  that  education  is  a  science ;  that  school- 
teachers can  understand  the  principles  of  this  science ; 
and  that  in  their  daily  work  they  can  apply  these  prin- 
ciples with  unerring  certainty  to  the  children  under 
their  control. 

In  the  presentation  of  topics  the  teacher  is  told  in 
plain  language  what  to  do  as  well  as  what  to  avoid. 
The  directions  are  therefore  simple,  pointed,  and  em- 
phatic. 

The  object  of  the  work  throughout  is  to  impress 
this  important  question  upon  the  mind  of  the  teacher : 
"  How  shall  I  teach  so  as  to  have  my  pupils  become  self- 
reliant,  independent,  manly  men  and  womanly  worn- 
en?" 

J.  M.  Greenwood. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

216597 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I. — The  Application   of  the    Principles  op  Psychology  to 

the  Work  of  Teaching 1 

II. — School  Management 20 

III. — Principles  of  Class  Management 37 

IV. — Methods  of  Conducting  Recitations — Directions  to  Pu- 
pils— Directions  to  Teachers 49 

V. — Length  of  Recitation 61 

VI. — Art  of  Questioning 71 

VII. — Teaching  Reading 82 

VIII. — Teaching  Composition  and  Language      ....  98 

IX. — Teaching  Penmanship       . 114 

X. — Teaching  Geography 128 

XI. — Teaching  History 140 

XII. — Teaching  Arithmetic 153 

XIII. — Health  and  Hygiene 165 

XIV.— Only  a  Boy 1?3 


PRINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION 
PEACTICALLY  APPLIED. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    APPLICATION    OF    THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    PSYCHOLOGY 
TO   THE   WORK   OF    TEACHING. 

This  subject  will  be  treated  under  three  divisions : 
I.   Temjjeraments. 
II.  Educational  Psychology. 

III.  Educational  Principles  and  their  Application. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  teacher  must  learn  what  to  do, 
how  to  do,  when  to  do,  and  when  to  leave  oft*.  Owing 
to  the  nature  of  his  work,  he  deals  chiefly  with  mind 
and  its  manifestations  as  made  known  through  the 
body,  and  hence  he  is  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  the 
elements  of  psychology,  and  not  unacquainted  with  the 
theory  and  art  of  teaching.  Thus  qualified,  his  success 
as  a  teacher  hinges  entirely  upon  the  right  application 
of  the  educational  forces  he  uses  in  imparting  instruc- 
tion and  in  arousing  self-activity  in  the  minds  of  the 
learners.  This  gives  a  double  phase  to  education — in- 
struction and  culture.  The  foregoing  implies  upon  the 
part  of  the  teacher  a  working  knowledge  of  the  human 
mind  in  general,  its  laws  of  growth,  modes  of  action, 


2       PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

and  methods  of  culture ;  also,  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  physiologic,  hygienic,  and  mental  conditions  of 
those  to  be  taught,  and  the  nature,  influence,  and  limits 
of  the  means  employed  in.  conveying  knowledge  and 
awakening  thought.  The  teacher,  it  is  admitted,  may 
be  well  read  in  psychology  as  an  abstract  science,  and 
capable  of  talking  intelligently  upon  any  special  depart- 
ment thereof,  and  yet  fail  in  teaching,  because  of  ina- 
bility to  adjust  and  to  adapt  his  educational  psychology 
to  the  capacity  of  his  pupils.  Owing  to  this  fact,  many 
intelligent  and  conscientious  teachers,  having  worked 
earnestly  and  industriously,  are  puzzled  in  trying  to 
understand  why  their  efiorts  are  so  unproductive  of 
substantial  results.  Perhaps  some  light  may  be  thrown 
on  this  mystery. 

As  a  class,  teachers  do  not  study  child-mind  under- 
standing^. They  begin  the  subject  at  the  wrong  end. 
What  psychology  the  most  of  them  know  has  been 
learned  from  books,  and  to  nearly  all  of  them  it  is  a 
nebulous  mass  at  best.  Much  of  it,  when  put  into  the 
plainest  language,  needs  to  be  translated  or  diluted  be- 
fore they  know  what  it  means.  Eight  heartily  do  they 
"  wish  that  writers  on  psychology  would  mix  more  or- 
ganized common-sense  with  their  metaphysics,  and  con- 
vey their  ideas  in  simple  words  that  common  people 
can  understand."  Doubtless  this  is  the  reason  why  so 
many  teachers  have  associated  an  intangible  something 
— difficult  to  grasp  and  harder  to  retain — with  the 
words  "  mental  philosophy,  psychology,  and  metaphys- 
ics." Turning  away  in  disgust  from  a  subject  that 
yields  so  little,  they  fall  back  on  experience  and  observa- 
tion, and  thus  virtually  deny  that  the  scattered  facts  in 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY   IN   TEACHING.  3 

methods  of  culture  are  susceptible  of  classification,  and 
that  any  general  principles  may  be  deduced  therefrom. 
From  such  premises,  indeed,  it  is  not  strange  that  they 
fail  to  discover  any  relation  between  psychological  prin- 
ciples and  their  application  to  living  children  ;  and, 
moreover,  they  are  apt  to  look  with  distrust  upon  any 
statement  affirming  tiiat  such  a  relationship  exists,  and 
that  it  can  be  discovered  and  applied  in  teaching.  Being 
unable  to  harmonize  bookish  psychology  with  the  facts 
before  them,  they  depart  on  divergent  lines  of  thought 
and  action  in  their  school- work.  Against  nature,  their 
pupils  are  mentally  and  physically  forced  so  far  as  the 
educational  machinery  can  crush  and  form  them  into 
the  same  molds.  Instead  of  intelligent  work,  it  is  edu- 
cational mechanism.  Both  teachers  and  school-officers 
need  awakening  on  this  subject.  Child-mind  must  be 
studied  in  the  children  themselves.  The  child  is  the 
starting-point.  Here  the  teacher  must  begin  as  an  in- 
telligent, patient  observer,  and  watch  carefully  the  un- 
folding of  every  faculty,  its  laws  of  growth  and  meth- 
ods of  culture.  Books  and  lectures  are  helps  not  to  be 
disparaged,  yet  they  are  not  the  only  sources  of  knowl- 
edge. For  instance,  the  boy  who  studies  geology  only 
from  books  may  pick  up  some  general  notions  in  regard 
to  that  science,  but  put  him  out  among  the  rocks  and 
he  is  lost,  helpless,  and  confused  ;  and  so  it  is  in  study- 
ing mind,  divorced  from  living  people.  Naked  mind, 
we  are  not  familiar  with,  and  do  not  know  how  to 
treat  it. 

Let  us  attend,  however,  to  a  more  practical  phase  of 
this  subject,  and  one,  too,  that  is  neglected  in  nearly  all 
the  training-schools  of  this  country,  and  yet  it  is,  in  my 


4     PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

opinion,  one  of  the  most  essential  qualifications  that  the 
teacher  can  possess,  namely,  a  critical  knowledge  of 

L   The  Human  Temperaments. 

The  brain  is  the  organ,  or  instrument,  that  the  mind 
uses  in  acquiring  or  in  imparting  knowledge  ;  in  other 
words,  it  is  the  organ  of  the  mind,  and  the  mind  is 
manifested  through  the  brain.  Now,  the  human  mind 
is  so  constituted  that  it  groups  objects  that  are  alike 
together,  and  separates  those  that  are  unlike.  This  is 
the  natural  method,  and  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all 
logical  classification  as  well  as  all  progress  in  the  vari- 
ous fields  of  human  thought.  A  law  that  is  so  universal 
in  its  nature  and  so  comprehensive  in  its  details,  and  is 
alike  applicable  to  individuals,  species,  genera,  classes, 
and  kingdoms,  should  not  be  neglected  in  the  grand 
work  of  human  culture.  To  give  a  more  practical  di- 
rection to  these  suggestions,  let  us  consider  briefly  the 
object  of  our  solicitude,  the  child,  composed,  according 
to  the  teachings  of  physiology,  of  three  systems,  con- 
sisting of  ten  apparatuses,  forming  thirty-nine  different 
organs.  This  is  the  child  as  a  material  organism.  This 
organism  can  exist  only  by  complying  with  certain  well- 
known  conditions,  and  these  are  conditions  of  growth, 
which  are  proper  food,  clothing  and  shelter,  exercise, 
rest,  and  sleep.  For  purposes  of  classification  according 
to  their  functions,  the  three  systems  are  the  blood-pro- 
ducing, blood-circulating,  and  the  nervous  system. 

At  a  glance,  an  experienced  physiologist  can  tell 
which  of  these  systems  predominates  in  any  particular 
person  that  may  come  before  him  or  be  accurately  de- 
scribed to  him ;  or  he  can  balance  with  nice  discrimina- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY   IN  TEACHING.  5 

tion  the  relations  that  these  systems  bear  to  one  another. 
Such  knowledge  is  acquired  by  observation,  experience, 
and  reflection.  In  the  art  of  healing,  this  knowledge 
is  an  essential  element.  Experienced  stockmen  will 
select  from  a  large  drove  of  cattle  or  horses  those  ani- 
mals having  peculiar  qualities  and  dispositions.  Those 
judges  of  animal  nature  seldom  or  never  make  mistakes. 
Vast  differences  exist  in  the  iiber  and  structure  of  the 
various  kinds  of  wood  that  lumber-men  well  under- 
stand. They  know  what  strain  or  pressure  each  kind 
will  sustain,  and  what  weight  it  will  support.  Should 
the  teacher's  knowledge  of  those  committed  to  his  care 
be  any  the  less  accurate  ?  Should  it  not  be  more  so  ? 
True ;  but  how  can  this  precise  knowledge  be  acquired  ? 
Answer :  By  the  teachers'  studying  the  temperaments  of 
living  people  closely,  carefully,  and  intelligently,  until 
they  can  tell  instantly  the  prevailing  temperament  or 
combination  of  temperaments  of  any  child.  Tempera- 
ment determines  the  prevailing  bias  of  disposition, 
whether  natural  or  acquired,  and  upon  it  depends  the 
sum  total  of  our  inclinations  and  prevailing  tendencies. 
The  temperaments  are  formed  by  the  proportion  of 
those  elements  that  enter  into  the  bodily  structure,  caus- 
ing the  diversities  in  shape,  form,  and  mental  character- 
istics that  we  observe;  and  whether  we  employ  the 
words  "  lymphatic,  sanguine,  bilious,  and  nervous,"  or 
"  vital,  motive,  and  mental,"  to  denote  the  bodily  con- 
stitution of  individuals,  these  terms'  correspond  to  those 
real  distinctions  which  prompt  the  possessor  to  move  or 
act  in  a  certain  direction.  The  mind  is  a  unit ;  it  mani- 
fests its  activity  in  various  directions.  A  distinct  kind 
of  mind  activity  is  called  a  faculty  of  the  mind ;  conse* 


6     PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

quently,  there  are  as  many  faculties  of  the  mind  as  it 
has  distinct  kinds  of  activity.  In  like  manner,  the  body 
is  one  organism,  constructed  upon  temperamental  con- 
ditions. The  manner  of  their  combination  produces 
tendencies  either  to  mental  activity  or  to  sluggishness, 
causing  all  those  variations  in  human  nature  that  we 
observe.  When  the  intellect,  sensibility,  or  will  pre- 
vails, there  is  found  a  corresponding  temperamental  de- 
velopment which  exerts  a  controlling  influence,  and 
shapes  and  colors  the  whole  character  of  the  possessor. 
He  lives  and  acts  in  harmony  with  his  nature.  Teach- 
ers furnished  with  eyes,  ears,  good  sense,  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  study,  can  tell  what  tendencies  prevail  in  the 
pupils  they  are  called  upon  to  teach.  This  is  justly  re- 
garded as  the  key  to  eminent  success. 

The  child  in  whom  the  nervous  temperament  pre- 
dominates certainly  requires  different  incentives,  both 
in  instruction  and  management,  from  the  one  whose 
strongest  temperament  is  the  bilious  or  sanguine,  or  a 
combination  of  them.  It  is  not  claimed  that  studying 
the  temperaments  is  the  same  as  studying  mind ;  but 
the  channels  along  which  the  mind's  activity  and  inten- 
sity manifest  themselves  are  legitimate  subjects  of  in- 
vestigation. Furthermore,  the  teacher  who  first  pre- 
pares himself  by  a  thorough  working  knowledge  of  the 
temperamental  conditions  of  childhood  is  better  equipped 
for  discerning  character  and  the  various  modes  of  treat- 
ment applicable  to  it  than  the  one  ignorant  of  these 
truths.  Of  all  persons,  the  teacher  should  be  the 
most  deeply  versed  in  the  philosophy  of  the  human 
mind.  He  should  be  familiar  with  mind  in  its  higher 
as  well  as  in  its  simpler  forms.     Mind  in  childhood,  in 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  TEACHING.  ? 

its  most  elementary  forms,  he  should  know.  A  word 
or  a  smile  to  one  child  may  be  more  repellant  or  at- 
tractive than  a  whipping  or  a  valuable  gift  to  another. 
A  teacher  who  is  a  correct  judge  of  human  nature 
knows  how  to  adapt  instruction  to  the  capacity  of  learn- 
ers. From  the  very  first  day  that  the  child  of  a  highly- 
wrought  nervous  organization  enters  school,  the  intelli- 
gent teacher  feels  a  deep  solicitude  for  him,  and  advises 
much  out-door  recreation  and  frequent  rests  from  study, 
early  bedtime  and  refreshing  sleep.  The  sturdy  boy, 
having  a  compact  organization,  capacious  lung  power, 
and  good  digestion,  needs  to  work  off  his  superabundant 
energy  in  various  directions.  The  school-house  may  be 
either  a  prison  or  a  palace  to  him,  depending  upon  how 
he  is  put  into  it  and  kept  there.  And  just  here  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  one  of  the  most  serious  ques- 
tions connected  with  American  civilization,  namely, 
whether  we  are  not  developing  too  highly,  in  the  school 
children  of  this  country,  the  nervous  system,  and  dwarf- 
ing the  growth  of  the  blood-producing  and  the  blood- 
circulating  systems.  Information  collected  from  nu- 
merous sources  points  in  that  direction,  particularly  in 
our  cities  and  towns.  As  it  is  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
present  discussion  to  pursue  this  phase  of  the  subject 
further,  reference  to  it  in  this  connection  serves  the 
purpose  of  indicating  the  vast  issues  involved  in  the 
subject  of  education,  and  as  influencing  the  physical 
characteristics  of  our  people.  This  is  a  serious  question 
that  educators  must  meet. 

JSTot  only  should  the  teacher  be  able  to  tell  at  sight 
what  temperament  predominates  in  any  particular  child, 
but  also  what  temperament  prevails  in  his  own  organiza- 


8      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

tion,  and  its  combining  ratios  with  the  other  tempera- 
ments. Knowing  himself,  he  can  institute  a  series  of 
comparisons  between  himself  and  others,  and  possibly 
this  may  be  the  means  of  correcting  some  of  his  own 
faults.  It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  the  tempera- 
mental condition  of  a  person  may  be  somewhat  modified 
in  a  series  of  years.  The  teacher,  by  vigilant  effort,  is 
able  in  time  to  tame  the  young  barbarian  into  an  intelli- 
gent, refined,  and  cultursd  gentleman.  Nervous  chil- 
dren, if  placed  under  a  calm,  quiet,  self-possessed  teacher, 
one  that  does  not  fret  and  worry  and  fidget,  will  become 
steady ;  he  will  teach  them  to  avoid  many  excitants  that 
would  otherwise  strain  their  nerves  to  the  highest  pitch. 
The  teacher  who  can  not  adapt  himself  to  his  pupils, 
and  who  fails  to  acquire  a  firm  grasp  on  their  affections 
by  holding  in  check  the  vicious  tendencies  and  unfold- 
ing the  better  ones,  will  not  succeed  in  making  thein 
useful  and  honorable  members  of  society. 

II.  Educational  Psychology. 

Education  is  not  a  matter  of  chance.  It  is  an  order- 
ly development  of  man's  powers,  that  furnishes  his  mind 
with  knowledge,  and  gives  him  skill  to  use  it.  All 
growth  proceeds  in  accordance  with  some  regular  plan 
of  development.  This  plan  is  the  law.  All  plants  and 
animals  grow  according  to  laws  governing  their  lives. 
They  grow  under  certain  conditions,  and,  if  these  condi- 
tions are  not  supplied,  death  ensues.  Law  is  written 
everywhere  and  in  the  plainest  characters.  Proper  soil, 
heat,  moisture,  and  light,  the  plant  must  have,  or  it 
withers  and  dies.  The  wild  bird,  imprisoned  in  the 
cage,  frets  and  struggles  and  dies— dies  trying  to  free 


PRINCIPLES  OF   PSYCHOLOGY  IN   TEACHING.  9 

itself.  Plant-life  symbolizes  human  growth  and  cult- 
ure ;  yet  the  educational  life  of  the  child  as  far  tran- 
scends that  of  the  mere  plant  as  human  intelligence  rises 
in  grandeur  above  the  life-principle  imbedded  in  the 
kernel  of  grain.  Education  as  a  science  is  based  upon 
fundamental  principles,  which  express  the  laws  of  hu- 
man life  and  its  development.  The  highest  interpreta- 
tion that  we  can  give  to  this  conception  is  the  perfection 
of  the  individual  for  the  duties  of  life. 

The  child  is  the  central  figure  in  all  educational 
systems.  His  powers  are  multiplex,  and  his  possibilities 
infinite ;  the  former  may  be  unfolded  in  their  natural 
order  by  the  skillful  teacher,  while  he  can  only  direct 
the  latter  by  inspiring  to  lofty  endeavor,  v  Thus  the 
teacher  is  the  molder,  builder,  and  architect  of  his  own 
school.  As  his  conception  of  education  grows  and  ex- 
pands daily,  so  will  his  workmanship  become  more  per- 
fect and  symmetrical.  Such  high  trusts  demand  con- 
summate skill,  rare  tact,  cultivated  taste,  and  unerring 
judgment.  Earnest,  diligent,  enthusiastic,  and  soul- 
inspiring,  the  true  teacher  is  always  a  learner.  All 
possibilities  of  the  race  he  recognizes  as  latent  in  the 
child.  When  the  child  is  charged,  can  the  teacher  draw 
out  the  sparks  %  This  human  machine  may  contain  a 
concentration  of  pointed  and  startling  traits  of  character 
transmitted  for  a  dozen  generations.  Herein  lies  another 
difficult  question,  and  one  which  embarrasses  thousands 
of  teachers.  No  account  is  taken  of  hereditary  tenden- 
cies. Presuming  that  the  ponderous  school-mill  will 
grind  out  about  the  same  quantity  and  quality  of  flour? 
however  great  the  variety  may  be  in  the  grain  furnished, 
teachers  are  too  frequently  forgetful  that  blind  forces, 


10   PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

working  upon  sensitive  minds,  may  blight  and  mildew 
the  fairest  hopes  and  the  brightest  prospects — may  cause 
the  most  active  minds  to  stagnate.  Teachers  at  the  be- 
ginning of  school  should  acquaint  themselves  with  all 
the  essential  factors  and  tendencies  of  each  pupil.  Such 
information  simplifies  school  management,  and  effectu- 
ally disposes  of  "  that  Yery  peculiar  boy  "  who  rules  the 
household  and  is  so  annoying  to  his  teacher.  In  pos- 
session of  such  facts,  the  teacher  would  enter  upon  his 
work  intelligently.  There  may  be  twenty  different 
factors  in  a  pupil's  nature  that  the  teacher  ought  to 
know,  but,  being  ignorant  of  them,  a  system  of  guess- 
work is  adopted,  with  the  usual  well-known  results ! 

It  is  no  unusual  thing  in  "  school-keeping,"  as  it  is 
called,  to  find  the  "  keeper  "  ignorant  of  the  nature, 
habits,  associations,  and  dispositions  of  the  pupils  attend- 
ing his  school.  Every  child  is  a  problem  to  be  studied, 
interpreted,  and  understood  aright.  A  mere  lad  is  not 
qualified  to  preside  as  judge  in  our  civil  or  criminal  courts 
to  mete  out  justice  to  the  people.  The  judge  is  a  man 
learned,  or  supposed  to  be  learned,  in  the  law.  The 
minister,  whose  calling  is  a  high  and  saered  one,  must 
keep  abreast  of  those  vital  issues  which  bear  directly  upon 
man's  present  and  future  happiness.  How  much  more 
important,  then,  is  it  that  the  teacher  should  have  that 
professional  knowledge  that  study  and  experience  only 
can  give !  The  teacher,  owing  to  the  relation  that  he  sus- 
tains to  his  pupils,  is  judge,  physician,  minister,  and  teach- 
er, all  centered  in  one  individual.  These  sacred  trusts  are 
committed  to  his  keeping.  Should  he  cease  to  improve 
or  to  grow  in  knowledge  and  wisdom,  they  will  perish 
in  his  hands.     To  stand  still  is  death  ;  only  growth  is  life. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  TEACHING.  H 

III.   Educational  Principles. 

I.  To  grow  is  a  law  of  our  being. 
.  2.  The  mind  is  self-active. 

3.  Body  and  mind  are  interdependent,  and  must  be 
studied  together. 

4.  The  teacher  must  know  the  nature  of  childhood 
and  the  laws  of  human  development. 

5.  The  teacher  should  understand  the  order  in  which 
the  faculties  of  the  human  mind  are  unfolded. 

6.  This  knowledge  can  be  acquired  by  studying  body 
and  mind  and  their  phenomena. 

7.  Education  is  a  growth,  and  is  effected  by  thought 
and  the  expression  of  thought. 

8.  In  teaching,  the  matter  and  the  method  must  be 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  learner. 

9.  The  teacher  must  know  the  subject-matter  to  be 
taught,  and  its  relations  to  other  subjects. 

10.  Attention  on  the  part  of  the  learner  is  the  con- 
dition of  acquiring  knowledge. 

II.  In  teaching,  the  learner  must  pass  by  easy  steps 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

12.  The  concrete  phase  of  a  subject  should  precede 
the  abstract,  and  the  objective  should  precede  the  sub- 
jective. 

1 3.  Only  one  thing  should  be  taught  at  a  time,  and 
the  learner's  understanding  should  be  thoroughly  reached. 

14.  All  intellectual  progress  depends  upon  the  learn- 
er's ability  to  discern  agreements  and  differences. 

15.  The  teacher  stimulates  and  directs  the  learner, 
but  all  education  comes  from  the  learner's  voluntary 
effort. 


12  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION   PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

16.  "  The  highest  perfection  of  the  individual  is  the 
true  object  of  education." 

The  foregoing  principles  are  based  upon  the  science 
of  human  development.  Some  of  them  refer  to  the 
learner,  others  to  the  teacher,  and  others  again  to  learner 
and  teacher.  Those  referring  to  methods  may  be 
employed  in  teaching  any  of  the  common  or  higher 
branches,  and  at  any  stage  of  the  learner's  progress. 
No  restrictions  are  imposed  on  any  of  them  save  the 
limits  of  the  teacher's  ingenuity  to  devise  illustrations. 
Educational  principles  are  guide-posts  that  say :  "  This 
way,  sir !  "  When  the  teacher  departs  from  them  he 
travels  over  rough  and  thorny  roads,  and  is  kept  re- 
tracing his  steps,  hardly  making  any  progress.  When 
the  blind  lead  the  blind,  there  is  no  one  to  watch  for 
the  ditch,  and,  when  they  tumble  into  it,  there  is  no 
hand  near  to  help  them  out.  The  word  "  struggling " 
well  represents  most  of  the  work  in  our  schools.  Strug- 
gling teachers,  struggling  children  —  all  stragglers! 
How  we  long  to  lift  them  out  and  set  them  traveling 
on  smooth  roads  and  face  foremost!  Straggling  with 
words,  rules,  tables,  and  definitions,  appears  to  be  the 
end  and  glory  for  which  school  children  live  and  suffer. 

Some  illustrations  will  now  be  adduced  from  meth- 
ods of  teaching  arithmetic.  The  following  are  se- 
lected from  an  arithmetic  just  published,  and  will  serve 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  one  phase  of  this  subject. 
The  pupil  is  directed  to  copy  and  complete  the  follow- 
ing and  other  exercises : 

4  +  2=?,  5  +  2=?,  5-2=?, 
f  +  3  =  ?,  2  +  5=?,  3  -  2  =  ?, 
6-2=  ?,        3  +  8=  ?,        etc. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY   IN  TEACHING.  13 

It  is  evident  that  such,  exercises  possess  some  genu- 
ine merit,  yet  they  make  a  very  thin  mental  diet.  Let 
us  take  the  equation  4  +  2  =  ?,  and  examine  it.  Put- 
ting four  and  two  together  is  one  act  of  the  mind — a 
synthesis — and  so  of  the  other  expressions  of  like  form. 
Again  5  —  2  =  ?,  involves  an  additional  element— an- 
alysis— and  is  one  step  in  advance.  When  once  the  child 
has  learned  that  four  and  two  are  six,  a  thousand  repe- 
titions will  give  him  no  new  information,  and  it  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  keep  him  employed  in  that  manner. 
Suppose,  however,  that  we  put  this  equation  under  an- 
other form  and  less  restricted,  the  figure  "  6  "  may  then 
assume  a  new  meaning.  Suppose  we  request  the  class 
to  find  all  the  numbers  by  adding  two  at  a  time  that 
will  make  "6"  At  once  they  are  set  thinking,  and 
each  one  must  think  for  himself.  The  number  "  6  "  is 
broken  to  pieces,  the  parts  examined,  and  put  together 
again.  Genuine  sparks  of  thought  fly  about  the  num- 
ber "  6 "  as  the  little  hands  are  raised  in  token  of 
results.  Here  are  the  results  in  full,  using  integers 
only : 

Operation.— 4  +  2  =  6,  3  +  3  =  6,  5  +  1  =  6, 
6  +  0  =  6.  The  child  sees  "  6  "  under  all  these  forms. 
Having  drilled  on  a  few  numbers,  the  work  may  be  ex- 
tended by  adding  three  numbers  at  a  time  to  make  "  6." 

Operation.— 4  +  1  +  1  =  6,  3  +  2  +  1  =  6,  2  + 
2  +  2  =  6,  5  +  1  +  0  =  6,  6  +  0  +  0  =  6. 

Such  exercises  may  be  indefinitely  extended,  fol- 
lowed immediately  by  taking  numbers  together  and 
apart.  Given  4  +  ?  —  ?  =  6.  Here  the  missing  num- 
bers are  to  be  supplied,  or  as  many  of  them  as  time  will 
permit. 


14  PRINCIPLES  OF   EDUCATION   PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

Operation. — 4  +  3  —  1  =  6. 

4  +  4-2  =  6. 

4  +  5-3  =  6. 

4  +  6-4  =  6. 
etc. 
By  a  slight  change  we  have  ?  +  ?  —  ?  +  2  =  6,  and 
again  the  learner  may  start  in  pursuit  of  results.  It  is 
now  evident  that  these  and  similar  exercises  may  be  ex- 
tended till  the  signs  of  multiplication  and  division  are 
employed,  and  fractional  numbers  are  used  with  the 
same  facility  as  integers.  Such  exercises  require  clear, 
concise,  intelligent  thought-work,  and  stand  in  striking 
contrast  to  dull  mechanical  drudgery :  that  only  stag- 
nates and  does  not  educate. 

Again,  a  class  is  to  learn  the  "  Table  of  Long  Meas- 
ure." How  shall  they  learn  it  ?  Committing  the 
"  table  "  to  memory  by  repeating  it  over  and  over  till 
all  "  can  say  it,"  is  the  universal  method.  This  method 
is  an  outrage,  an  insult,  an  irreparable  injury  to  the  chil- 
dren. It  violates  every  educational  principle,  except 
one  prevalent  in  China.  To  verify  a  table  is  the  ra- 
tional manner  of  learning  it.  Each  pupil  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  foot-ruler,  and  set  to  work  measuring  such 
objects  in  the  school-room  as  the  teacher  may  designate. 
The  arbitrary  length,  the  inch,  is  marked  off,  and  from 
it  the  learner  gets  his  first  definite  conception  of  meas- 
ured distance.  Counting  the  inches  in  a  foot,  the  unit  of 
measure  is  fixed  in  his  mind.  In  measuring,  care  must 
be  taken  that  it  is  done  correctly.  By  short  steps  the 
/earner  goes  from  the  foot  to  the  yard,  from  the  yard 
to  the  rod,  and,  by  reversing  the  steps,  back  again  to 
inches.   Having  measured  different  objects  in  the  school- 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PSYCHOLOGY   IN   TEACHING.  15 

room,  a  wider  field  of  objects  may  be  selected  about  the 
school  grounds.  Pertinent  questions  by  the  teacher,  ad- 
dressad  to  the  pupils  as  the  work  progresses,  will  fix 
the  facts  firmly  in  each  mind.  In  every  act  of  measure- 
ment the  pupil  uses  analysis  and  synthesis — reduction 
ascending  and  reduction  descending.  Mentally,  he 
passes  rapidly  up  and  down  the  scale.  The  foot-ruler  is 
to  be  followed  by  using  the  yard-stick  and  tape-line  in 
measuring  objects  of  considerable  length.  Such  practi- 
cal work  cultivates  the  eye,  hand,  observation,  attention, 
judgment,  and  reason,  and  the  pupil  retains  what  he 
learns. 

As  another  exercise,  "  Wine  Measure  "  may  be  pre- 
sented. The  school  should  be  furnished  with  a  gill,  a 
pint,  a  quart,  and  a  gallon  measure ;  also  with  a  bucket 
of  water,  or  a  bushel  or  two  of  sand.  Everything 
in  readiness,  a  member  of  the  class  will  dip  up  a  gill 
of  whatever  is  to  be  measured  and  empty  it  into  the 
pint  cup,  and  repeat  till  this  vessel  is  filled,  and  it  in 
turn  emptied  into  the  quart  cup,  the  class  noting  par- 
ticularly the  number  of  gills  in  a  pint,  and  also  in  a 
quart.  Now  the  gill,  pint,  or  quart  measure  may  be 
used  to  fill  the  gallon  vessel  or  to  empty  it.  The  chil- 
dren, keeping  account  of  the  gills,  pints,  and  quarts  in 
a  gallon,  understand  every  step  in  the  process,  and  know 
the  why  and  wherefore.  The  table  means  something, 
and  they  can  explain  the  meaning.  Doing  is  the  way  t 
to  knowing,  and  this  is  the  fact  emphasized.  What  is 
true  of  these  two  "  tables  "  is  correspondingly  true  of 
other  tables  of  weights  and  measures.  Thousands  of 
children  can  repeat  glibly  "  Avoirdupois  Weight,"  yet 
they  can  not  weijdaf^^qu^i^pf  butter  on  the  scales. 


16  PRINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

Shall  we  not  bridge  this  great  chasm  between  school 
work  and  the  practical  duties  of  life  ? 

The  world's  great  teachers  are  most  valuable  to  us, 
not  on  account  of  the  discoveries  they  have  made,  but 
on  account  of  the  power  they  have  given  us  to  get 
knowledge  for  ourselves,  and  the  mental  activity  they 
inspire.  Hence  one  of  the  great  objects  in  teaching 
is  to  put  the  learner  in  such  a  position  that  he  must 
get  knowledge  for  himself,  and  follow  his  own  incli- 
nation doing  so ;  yet  his  efforts  should  be  directed  by 
the  teacher.  To  keep  abreast  of  his  work,  the  teacher 
is  required  to  analyze  his  subjects  and  frequently  to  re- 
construct them,  and  to  devote  his  attention  to  the  learn- 
er's mind.  Thoroughly  conversant  with  his  subjects 
and  well  grounded  in  the  principles  of  human  nature, 
he  is  properly  qualified  to  impart  instruction  and  to 
manage  children  successfully.  He  is  able  also  to  trace 
the  proper  connection  of  what  he  teaches  and  how  he 
teaches  with  the  fundamental  operations  of  the  hu- 
man mind  as  related  to  the  body  and  acting  through 
the  nerves,  muscles,  and  special  senses.  Intellectual 
acts  he  distinguishes  as  belonging  to  two  classes — the 
perception  of  agreements  and  the  perception  of  differ- 
ences, supplemented  by  memory,  or  the  power  to  hold 
in  the  mind  what  has  once  been  perceived.  The  power 
of  observing  differences  is,  perhaps,  more  important  in 
an  educational  sense  than  that  of  noting  agreements, 
although  they  are  the  complements  of  each  other.  Dif- 
ferences strike  us  everywhere.  By  differences  persons 
and  things  are  separated  and  regarded  as  distinct.  Com- 
plete knowledge  unites  in  thought  what  an  object  is,  by 
separating  it  from  what  it  is  not.     Agreements  form 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PSYCHOLOGY   IN  TEACHING.  17 

classes,  and  individual  objects  picked  out  of  classes 
make  differences.  The  unskillful  teacher  relies  almost 
entirely  upon  teaching  agreements  and  neglecting  dif- 
ferences. Such  instruction  is  one-sided,  narrow,  and 
superficial. 

Certain  operations  of  the  mind  take  place  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  The  several  steps  in  the 
process  are  so  clearly  established  that  all  thinking  per- 
sons accept  them.  Analyzing  a  mental  operation  by 
which  an  object  of  thought  is  reached  and  fixed  in  the 
mind,  the  steps  appear  as  follow  : 

1.  Attention ;  2.  Abstraction ;  3.  Analysis ;  4.  Syn- 
thesis ;  5.  Comparison ;  6.  Identification ;  7.  Discrimi- 
nation ;  8.  Classification. 

To  obtain  these  results,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to 
stick  closely  to  the  point  under  consideration.  Instead 
of  spading  around  in  the  neighborhood  of  any  particular 
topic,  he  digs  it  up  root  and  branch,  and  holds  it  before 
the  minds  of  his  class  till  they  grasp  it  with  a  power 
that  never  relaxes.  By  appropriation  and  assimilation 
it  becomes  their  own. 

Another  important  distinction,  but  most  unfortu- 
nately lost  sight  of  in  teaching,  is  in  not  distinguishing 
sharply  between  thought  and  the  expression  of  thought. 
Thought  naturally  precedes  expression.  Thought  ap- 
pears to  spring  up  instantly  in  the  mind,  while  the  ex- 
pression is  of  slower  growth.  Ideas  go  before  words. 
Words  symbolize  ideas,  that  others  may  grasp  the 
thought  they  are  intended  to  express.  Therefore,  edu- 
cation is  composed  of  two  complementary  parts — thought 
and  the  expression  of  thought.  It  is  important  in  all 
cases  for  the  teacher  to  know  whether  any  difficulty 


IS  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION"   PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

that  a  pupil  may  have  in  learning  is  owing  to  an  error 
in  thought  or  to  a  defect  in  expression.  If  an  error 
exist  in  thought,  it  can  not  be  corrected  by  correcting 
the  language.  The  source  of  error  is  deeper  than  any 
verbal  distinction,  hence  the  necessity  for  deciding  cor- 
rectly to  which  the  error  belongs.  A  learner  may  use 
language  well,  apparently,  yet  be  incapable  of  thinking 
either  correctly  or  vigorously.  No  amount  of  language 
drill  will  cause  him  to  improve  his  forms  of  thought, 
and  neither  will  thought -work  always  improve  or  culti- 
vate the  power  of  expressing  ideas  clearly,  forcibly,  and 
elegantly.  Dimness  of  thought,  or  failure  to  grasp  an 
idea  firmly  and  to  hold  it  tenaciously,  may  be  the  weak 
point  in  the  pupil's  mind.  To  remove  dimness  of 
thought,  repeated  explanations  and  demonstrations  are 
necessary.  Defects  in  expression  are  remedied  by  con- 
stant and  careful  practice  in  the  choice  of  language, 
which  should  be  a  prominent  feature  of  every  recitation. 
The  uppermost  question  in  actual  school  work  is  the 
form  of  thought  and  how  to  express  it.  The  ability  to 
do  stalwart  thinking  is  one  of  the  lost  arts  in  most 
schools.  The  general  drift  is  setting  strongly  to  memo- 
rizing. Memorizing  rules,  definitions,  "  beautiful  senti- 
ments," and  a  vast  amount  of  gilt-edged  rubbish  and 
padding,  that  have  no  educational  significance,  except 
as  clogs  to  thought  and  leaden  feet  to  progress.  Awk- 
wardly the  boy  may  express  his  ideas,  and  with  diffi- 
culty make  himself  understood ;  yet  this  awkward  boy 
may  think  well,  and  in  time  acquire  an  easy,  natu- 
ral, and  graceful  style  of  expression.  Rob  him  of  his 
thoughts,  and  his  language  betrays  his  ignorance.  Edu- 
cation rests  upon  the  thought-basis  as  its  pivotal  center. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  TEACHING.  19 

Thought  has  life,  activity,  growth  in  it.  Memory  is  the 
form  of  education  minus  the  soul.  It  is  the  receiving* 
vault  in  which  thought  is  imprisoned,  and  then  starved 
to  death. 


CHAPTER  II 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


In  discussing  school  management  we  aim  to  ascer- 
tain the  best  methods  of  conducting  all  the  affairs  of  a 
school.  The  particular  points  to  be  considered  are, 
first,  the  school-house;  secondly,  the  organization  of 
classes ;  thirdly,  the  movements  of  classes ;  and  fourth- 
ly, the  daily  programme  of  exercises. 

The  construction  of  a  school-building  may  aid  the 
teacher  very  materially  in  the  management  of  the  school, 
or  it  may  be  so  inconvenient  and  so  poorly  adapted  to 
school  purposes  as  to  subvert  many  things  that  should 
be  accomplished  in  school  work. 

In  this  discussion  my  remarks  are  intended  to  apply 
to  country  schools  as  well  as  to  city  and  town  graded 
schools.  Nearly  seven  tenths  of  all  the  children  in  the 
nation  must  be  educated  in  the  country  schools.  These 
schools  are  the  people's  colleges.  The  remaining  three 
tenths  are  educated  in  private  and  graded  schools. 
Most  of  the  States  have  systems  of  schools,  and,  though 
not  alike  in  all  respects,  the  following  general  classifi- 
cation will  apply  to  most  of  them. 

Under  a  State  system  of  schools  there  are,  first,  the 
ungraded  and  graded  elementary  schools ;   secondly — a 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  21 

step  higher — the  high  schools,  academies,  and  semina- 
ries ;  and  thirdly — still  another  step  higher — the  nor- 
mal schools  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Besides  these, 
there  are,  in  many  of  the  States,  universities  for  a  still 
more  advanced  course  of  study,  and  many  private 
schools  and  colleges.  This  simple  classification  will 
show  what  is  meant  by  a  State  system,  though  the  or- 
ganization in  many  of  the  States  is  as  yet  very  imper- 
fect. 

School-houses  and  their  location.  In  some  of  the 
country  districts  the  school-house  is  to  be  found  in  one 
of  the  most  inaccessible  places  in  the  district.  It  is  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance  where  the  school- 
house  in  a  district  is  located.  It  should  be  central,  so 
that  children  from  all  parts  of  the  district  can  easily  get 
to  it.  The  grounds  about  it  should  be  desirable  and 
inviting  as  well  as  convenient,  and  should  be  selected 
with  a  view  to  the  interests  of  the  children  rather  than 
to  those  of  some  one  who  wishes  to  give  an  acre  of  land 
which  he  can  not  cultivate,  and  which  the  district  ac- 
cepts without  due  consideration.  Sometimes  the  ground 
is  selected  in  a  ravine,  or  perhaps  on  a  hill,  or  some 
other  place  difficult  of  access,  forcing  .the  children  to 
walk  across  fields  instead  of  along  the  traveled  roads  in 
order  to  reach  it. 

The  school-house  should  he  properly  constructed  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  halls,  rooms,  and  stairways  ; 
of  the  heating,  ventilation,  lighting,  and  seating.  Some 
school -rooms  are  not  in  good  shape  for  auditory  pur- 
poses. Every  school-house  should  be  so  well  heated  that 
it  is  comfortable  in  every  part ;  it  should  be  commodious, 
so  that  every  person  in  it  shall  have  enough  breathing 


22   PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

and  working  space ;  it  should  be  well  lighted,  so  that 
the  constant  use  of  the  eyes  need  not  result  in  injury  to 
these  most  useful  and  sensitive  of  organs ;  it  should  be 
well  ventilated,  so  that  the  workers  within  it  shall  be  sup- 
plied with  pure  air,  and  yet  not  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
expose  any  one  to  the  death-dealing  draughts ;  it  should 
be  supplied  with  comfortable  seats  and  desks  adapted  to 
the  sizes  of  the  pupils  who  occupy  them  ;  and  it  should 
be  well  supplied  with  such  other  things  as  facilitate  the 
work  of  instruction.  There  should  be  a  clock  in  every 
room.  Time  is  an  important  element  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  school.  Work  must  be  begun  on  time,  con- 
tinued full  time,  finished  on  time.  The  habit  of  being 
on  time  in  the  performance  of  every  duty  should  be 
formed  early  in  the  life  of  every  child,  and  a  clock  ever 
before  him,  telling  the  time,  is  needed  among  the  first 
items  of  furniture  in  a  schoolroom.  A  teacher  who 
fails  to  be  on  time  can  not  succeed  any  more  than  can  a 
business  man  who  is  always  behind  time.  The  railroad 
train  never  waits  for  the  laggard. 

How  was  a  school  ever  successful  without  a  black- 
board ?  is  a  question  that  we  ask  nowadays.  I  can 
recollect  a  place  in  Illinois  where  a  heated  discussion 
arose  in  regard  to  the  introduction  of  a  blackboard  into 
a  church.  This  was  at  an  early  day,  and  nobody  in  that 
part  of  the  country  had  ever  seen  a  blackboard.  A  man 
came  out  from  the  State  of  New  York  and  taught  arith- 
metic and  a  little  English  grammar,  and  he  wanted  a 
blackboard.  He  was  conducting  his  school  in  a  Baptist 
church,  and  the  elders  opposed  the  use  of  anything 
black,  as  they  thought  it  might  be  begotten  of  the  devil, 
and  have  a  bad  inlluence  on  their  spiritual  welfare.   But 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  23 

he  finally  persuaded  them  to  allow  it,  and  when  Sun- 
day came  there,  was  the  blackboard,  not  larger  than 
our  penmanship  charts,  and  they  turned  the  black  part 
to  the  wall  in  one  corner  of  the  church.  Ideas,  new 
ideas,  spread  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  now  a  school- 
house  without  a  blackboard  would  seem  like  a  wagon 
without  wheels.  A  blackboard  ought  to  extend  entirely 
around  the  four  sides  of  the  room.  It  must  be  made 
low,  so  that  the  little  children  can  use  it,  and  high 
enough  for  the  larger  children.  And  there  are  maps 
and  charts — the  tools  without  which  a  teacher  can  not 
do  all  the  work  of  the  school  properly. 

The  water  furnished  for  school  children  should  be 
pure  and  fresh ;  and,  if  taken  from  a  well  or  cistern, 
should  be  drawn  and  exposed  to  the  air  in  pails.  No 
well  or  cistern  should  be  covered  to  exclude  the  air,  for 
air  helps  to  keep  the  water  pure  and  healthful.  Recent 
experiments  show  that  more  people  die  of  typhoid  fever 
caused  by  drinking  impure  water  than  from  any  other 
one  cause.  Not  long  since  one  of  the  ablest  mathema- 
ticians in  this  country  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
seven,  and  his  death  was  attributed  to  drinking  impure 
cistern-water.  School  children  must  be  supplied  wTith 
pure  water  to  drink.  "We  have  no  right  to  be  careless 
about  this.  There  must  be  no  poison  in  their  drink,  in 
the  food  they  eat,  nor  in  the  air  they  breathe. 

Play- Grounds. 

A  play-ground  is  almost  as  necessary  to  a  school- 
house  as  the  latter  is  to  a  district.  It  should  be  large, 
well  fenced  in,  and  there  should  be  trees  and  flowers 
and  pleasant  walks  to  add  to  its  attractions.     The  love 


24:  PRINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

of  the  beautiful  ought  always  to  be  cherished  in  the 
hearts  of  the  children,  for  this  love  has  a  strong  and 
permanent  influence  in  molding  character,  and  in  pre- 
paring them  for  useful,  happy  lives.  And,  when  the 
walks  and  grounds  are  made  beautiful,  the  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  use  them,  to  care  for  them. 
And,  too,  the  decoration  of  the  school-rooms  themselves 
by  the  children  should  be  encouraged.  Let  them  bring 
flowers  and  pictures,  if  they  will ;  and,  be  the  offering 
ever  so  simple,  express  yourself  pleased,  thus  giving 
great  joy  to  the  heart  of  the  little  child. 

Myopia. 

Before  taking  up  the  second  division  of  our  subject 
we  will  refer  again  to  the  proper  lighting  of  school- 
rooms, in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  care  of  the  eyes. 
In  this  country  and  in  Europe  much  complaint  has  been 
made  of  the  myopia,  or  near-sightedness,  of  so  many 
pupils  in  the  schools.  More  than  sixty  per  cent  of  the 
students  who  go  through  the  German  schools  leave 
there  near-sighted.  There  must  be  a  reason  for  this, 
and  many  physicians  who  have  investigated  the  subject 
agree  in  thinking  that  much  of  it  might  be  avoided 
by  an  observance  of  the  following  points :  The  light 
should  not  be  allowed  to  come  directly  in  the  face  of 
the  child,  but  from  the  left  side.  Care  should  be  ex- 
ercised in  regard  to  the  amount  of  light.  If  there  is 
not  enough  light  in  a  room,  there  results  an  unnatural 
and  injurious  expansion  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  if  an 
effort  is  made  to  use  the  eyes. 

Again,  teachers  should  see  to  it  that  children  do  not 
sit  with  their  bodies  bent  forward  and  downward,  nor 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  25 

with  the  eyes  too  close  to  their  books,  nor  hold  their 
books  so  that  the  rajs  of  light  strike  their  books  at  too 
obtuse  angles. 

Teachers  have  better  opportunities  for  preventing 
or  discovering  optical  defects  in  pupils  than  parents, 
and  should  at  once  notify  the  latter  when  there  are  in- 
dications of  an  abnormal  or  of  a  diseased  condition  of 
the  eyes. 

Classification  and  Promotion. 

The  most  difficult  problem,  especially  for  young 
teachers  going  into  country  schools,  is  that  of  the  organ- 
ization of  classes.  The  statements  of  the  children  can 
not  be  relied  upon  to  give  full  data  for  classification, 
nor  can  reports  left  by  a  former  teacher  always  be  trust- 
ed, as  they  give  so  little  information  on  this  subject. 
Frequently  boys  go  to  school  one  winter,  and  get  nearly 
through  the  arithmetic,  say  from  fractions  to  square- 
root,  during  a  three  months'  term  of  school.  The  next 
year  comes  a  new  teacher.  Some  of  these  boys  do  not 
return,  and  some  new  ones  come  in.  Those  who  return 
usually  have  to  begin  just  where  they  did  the  year  be- 
fore, and  pursue  the  same  old  track.  This  goes  on 
sometimes  for  six  or  seven  years,  and  the  pupils  never 
get  any  farther  in  their  studies  than  they  did  in  the  first 
winter. 

Every  teacher  who  is  employed  in  a  country  school 
should  leave  a  record  in  which  are  the  names  of  all  the 
pupils,  with  a  distinct  statement  of  the  advancement  of 
each,  so  that  a  new  teacher  need  have  no  difficulty  in 
organizing  the  school  without  loss  of  time. 

There  should  be  a  definite  basis  of  classification,  and 


26    PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

this  the  teacher  should  know  and  follow.  If  one  teacher 
grades  on  spelling,  and  his  successor  on  penmanship, 
and  a  third  on  something  else — each  on  his  own  hobby 
— no  good  results  can  be  secured  in  a  school. 

It  is  generally  conceded  by  educators  that  all  classi- 
fication in  schools  should  be  based  upon  reading  and 
arithmetic,  the  former  in  the  lower  grades,  and  the  lat- 
ter in  all  the  more  advanced  classes. 

If  there  be  a  large  pupil,  whose  mental  powers  seem 
tolerably  well  developed,  and  he  can  apply  himself  more 
closely  than  others,  he  should  be  placed  in  more  ad- 
vanced classes,  even  though  he  can  not  read  very  well. 
By  this  means  he  will  be  able  to  derive  all  the  benefit 
possible  in  the  short  time  he  remains  in  school. 

Some  time  since  I  prepared  the  following  Course  of 
Study  and  Daily  Programme  for  country  schools,  mak- 
ing it  extend  over  a  period  of  eight  school  years,  allow- 
ing six  months  to  the  year.  Many  pupils  will  complete 
it  in  less  time.  The  school  is  arranged  in  two  depart- 
ments, primary  and  grammar,  four  years'  time  given 
to  each  department,  and  each  year  being  divided  into 
two  terms  of  three  months  each.  The  year  and  grade 
are  made  to  correspond.  The  fractions  indicate  what 
part  of  a  subject  is  completed  during  a  term.  The  star 
indicates  that  the  instruction  is  entirely  oral,  and  that 
the  pupil  does  not  have  a  text-book.  In  language  and 
primary  geography  the  oral  instruction  is  supplemented 
by  the  book.  The  object  of  this  course  of  study  is  to 
systematize  the  work  in  country  schools,  to  aid  teachers 
in  the  work  of  classification,  and  to  secure  better  results 
than  can  be  done  under  the  loose  plan,  with  nothing 
definite  in  view. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


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28  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Many  persons  have  an  idea  that  the  graded-school 
system  is  a  kind  of  Procrustean  bed  upon  which  pupils 
are  fitted  without  regard  to  their  interests. 

The  mechanically  graded  school  and  the  heteroge- 
neous country  school  represent  the  two  extremes  of  the 
common-school  system.  In  one  it  is  all  system  reduced 
to  a  monotonous  routine,  while  the  other  presents  all 
the  varied  beauties  arising  from  the  advantages  (?)  of  fre- 
quent promotions — a  systemless  school. 

There  is  certainly  need  of  reform  in  some  graded 
schools,  in  which  the  whole  machinery  has  become  petri- 
fied, and  a  little  shaking  up  would  do  the  rigid  fossil 
some  good.  But,  while  this  is  true,  it  is  also  true  that 
the  introduction  of  some  system  of  classification  into 
the  ungraded  and  country  schools  is  not  only  necessary 
but  most  desirable. 

In  classifying  pupils,  there  are  some  questions  which 
are  applicable  to  all  schools.  For  this  reason  their  in- 
troduction just  here  seems  not  inappropriate,  and  may 
be  a  help  to  teachers  in  either  city  or  country  schools : 

1.  Has  the  pupil  ever  attended  school? 

2.  What  does  he  actually  know  ? 

3.  After  he  has  entered  school,  if  at  any  time  he  is 
able  to  do  the  work  of  a  more  advanced  class,  is  it  the 
part  of  wisdom  to  promote  him  ? 

4.  What  influence  on  his  health  would  an  undue 
stimulus  have  ? 

5.  Is  he  old' enough  to  be  rushed  through  his  studies, 
and  has  he  the  constitution  to  bear  it  ? 

6.  What  are  the  home  influences  ? 

7.  If  he  has  been  in  school,  why  did  he  fall  behind 
his  class  ? 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  29 

The  last  question  arises  more  frequently  in  graded 
than  in  ungraded  schools. 

In  the  graded  schools  are  representatives  of  the  fol- 
lowing classes  of  pupils : 

(a)  Those  entering  school  for  the  first  time. 

(b)  Those  who  have  finished  the  work  of  their  grade. 

(c)  Those  who  are  able  to  go  more  rapidly  than  the 
average  class,  and  are  therefore  the  subjects  of  special 
promotion. 

(d)  Those  who  have  fallen  behind  in  the  regular 
class-work  and  can  not  keep  up. 

Only  in  rare  instances,  if  a  pupil  is  regular  in  at- 
tendance, does  he  fail  to  "  pass." 

The  work  laid  out  for  each  term  is  what  the  child 
of  average  ability  is  capable  of  doing.  Many  can  do 
more. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  charge  is  made 
that  children  make  slow  progress  in  the  graded  schools 
is  that  those  making  the  assertion  fail  to  distinguish  be- 
tween what  young  men  and  young  women  can  do  in 
school  in  two  or  three  years,  and  the  inability  of  little 
children  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work  in  the  same 
time. 

Maturity  of  mind  is  required  to  make  extraordinary 
progress,  and  small  children,  unless  precocious,  do  not 
have  it. 

Were  the  pupils  kept  out  of  school  till  twelve  or 
fifteen  years  of  age,  they  could  then  do  the  work  of  the 
graded-school  course  of  study  in  two  or  three  years; 
but  we  must  consider  this  subject  as  it  at  present  exists. 

Suppose  the  utmost  tension  is  given  to  the  graded- 
school  system,  are  there  not  then  weighty  objections 


SO   PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY   APPLIED. 

which  play  an  important  part  in  the  education  of  chil- 
dren? 

(a)  The  frequent  change  of  teachers  is  one  of  the 
disadvantages  of  the  country  schools.  Now,  if  it  be 
injurious  to  change  teachers  every  few  months  in  coun- 
try schools,  how  can  the  reverse  of  this  be  true  for  town 
and  city  schools?  I  know  of  no  rules  in  reasoning  that 
will  warrant  contradictory  conclusions  from  the  same 
premises,  and  both  conclusions  be  correct. 

(b)  It  does  not  answer  to  say  that  the  pupils  are 
hurried  through  the  lower  schools  till  they  get  into  the 
high  school,  and  will  then  remain  under  the  influence  of 
the  same  teachers  for  three  or  four  years. 

(c)  Introducing  an  unnatural  excitant  has  a  tendency 
to  destroy  the  main  object  for  which  public  schools  are 
supported  and  patronized.  The  idea,  whether  inten- 
tional or  not,  is  held  out  to  both  teachers  and  pupils  to 
prepare  for  promotion  by  "stuffing,"  u cramming,"  or 
"  packing."  These  are  the  feeble  words  used  to  express 
the  hurry  and  waste  and  haste  in  order  to  get  through 
and  make  a  show.  Teachers  feel  that,  if  their  brightest 
pupils  are  not  hurried  onward  at  race-horse  speed,  their 
services  are  not  duly  appreciated,  and  there  is  danger  of 
losing  their  positions.  This  is  certainly  a  serious  ob- 
jection which  I  have  not  seen  satisfactorily  answered. 
Under  high  pressure,  the  object  of  education  is  not 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  but  the 
delusive  phantom  of  promotion,  wThich  is  always  tan- 
talizing to  the  mind  of  the  sensitive  pupil.  The  pu- 
pil, when  leaving  school,  should  go  away  with  the  con- 
viction that  he  has  finished  the  school-work  up  to  date. 

(d)  The  health  of  the  pupil  in  this  race  is  neglected, 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  31 

and  the  intense  strain  on  the  nervous  system  destroys 
the  natural  and  healthy  action  of  the  vital  functions, 
thus  insidiously  undermining  the  constitution  and  laying 
the  foundation  for  disease. 

By  exercising  reasonable  care  in  classifying  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  school-term,  few  mistakes  will  be  made, 
and  these  may  in  a  short  time  be  corrected.  The  reme- 
dy is  in  the  hands  of  the  principal  and  teacher.  Pupils 
should  be  promoted  because  they  have  completed  the 
preceding  work,  or  have  the  ability  to  go  on  with  a 
higher  class.  Promotions  for  other  reasons  are  usually 
a  positive  injury  to  all  parties  concerned. 

In  the  graded  schools  we  call  the  first  year  in  school 
the  first  grade,  the  second  year  the  second  grade,  and 
so  on  through  the  eighth  grade,  after  which  comes  the 
work  of  the  high  school.  A  difficult  problem  now  pre- 
sents itself  for  solution,  and  that  is  the  number  of  classes 
and  the  number  of  studies  to  be  taken  up  by  the  pupils. 

Possibly  three  new  branches  of  study  besides  read- 
ing are  as  many  as  any  pupil  can  pursue  profitably  at  one 
time.  Writing,  drawing,  and  music  are  properly  classed 
as  "  drills.'-  but  drawing  is  an  excellent  exercise  for  train- 
ing the  hand,  the  eye,  the  judgment,  and  the  imagina- 
tion. 

If  a  student  has  Greek,  Latin,  and  mathematics,  he 
has  enough  new  work.  These  are  the  studies  usually 
pursued  in  high-school  and  college  classes.  Some  pupils 
take  more,  but  the  effect  upon  the  health  is  usually  bad. 
Hundreds  of  college  students  are  wrecking  their  whole 
lives  because  teachers  encourage  them  in  this  course. 
Tear  after  year  I  look  into  the  faces  of  pupils  whose 
vital  energies  are  being  exhausted  by  mental  overwork. 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Movements  of  Classes. 

Suppose  a  young  lady  goes  for  the  first  time  into  a 
schoolroom  to  fill  a  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  absence 
of  the  regular  teacher.  The  children  are  full  of  life. 
It  is  time  for  recitation.  How  shall  she  call  out  a  class  ? 
One  bright  little  girl  reports  that  her  teacher  says  "  At- 
tention ! "  and  then  taps  with  her  pencil.  The  first  tap 
means  "  turn,"  the  second  "  rise,"  the  third  "  pass,"  and 
the  children  pass  to  their  places  on  the  "  line."  This  is 
a  good  way  to  give  signals,  and  the  movements  are  just 
what  are  needed.  But  suppose  the  teacher  has  been  a 
little  unsystematic.  The  new  teacher  says,  "  The  class 
in  the  first  reader  will  take  their  places."  They  run  to 
their  places,  each  child  trying  to  be  first.  There  is 
confusion,  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  into  line,  and 
to  watch  them.  But,  if  the  teacher  is  quiet  and  digni- 
fied, she  will  succeed,  even  though  she  does  not  under- 
stand the  work  of  the  regular  teacher.  It  is  a  good 
plan  for  her  to  explain  in  this  way :  "  When  I  say 
'  one,'  turn  your  feet  into  the  aisle ;  when  I  say  '  two,' 
rise ;  and  when  I  say  '  three,'  pass  to  the  place  where 
you  recite  your  lessons." 

I  have  seen  children  going  to  their  places  with  their 
hands  behind  them,  and  walking  on  their  toes.  Old 
men  sometimes  walk  with  their  hands  behind  them,  but 
is  it  natural  for  children  ?  Teach  children  to  walk  and 
to  stand  flat-footed.  Do  not  distort  the  natural  form  of 
a  child  for  the  sake  of  a  death-like  stillness  in  the  school- 
room. 

In  returning  them  to  their  seats  at  the  close  of  a 
recitation,  the  same  plan  should  be  pursued,  first  call- 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  33 

ing  "  Attention ! "  which  means  to  close  open  books 
and  take  position  ready  to  obey  the  signals  which  will 
be  given  for  them  to  turn  and  to  pass  to  seats.  The 
plan  adopted  by  many  teachers  of  having  them  stand 
at  their  seats  till  all  are  in  place,  and  then  be  seated  at 
one  signal,  is  a  good  one. 

Movements  at  the  Blackboard. 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  have  his  place 
assigned  him.  Then,  suppose  the  lesson  is  in  arith- 
metic, and  there  are  five  problems,  let  the  class  num- 
ber in  sections  of  "  live,"  each  member  of  a  section  to 
have  the  problem  corresponding  to  his  number.  Then, 
at  a  signal,  all  turn  in  one  direction — to  the  left — till 
they  face  the  board.  If  the  names  of  pupils  are  not 
already  written,  at  a  signal  they  write  names  and  num- 
bers. The  next  signal  means  "work."  After  a  rea- 
sonable time  has  been  given  for  placing  solutions  on 
the  board,  "  Attention  !  "  should  be  called,  when  all 
should  turn  from  the  board,  this  time  turning  to  the 
right.  Explanations  are  then  called  for  and  given. 
At  the  close  of  the  recitation,  the  signal  "  erase  "  being 
given,  they  obey  it ;  then,  at  the  closing  signal,  "  atten- 
tion !  "  they  turn  from  the  board  and  stand  in  position 
ready  to  obey  the  signals  which  seat  them. 

Programme. 

In  a  well-managed  school  there  is  a  definite  time  for 
the  beginning  and  close  of  every  exercise.  There  must 
be  a  time-table  so  arranged  and  placed  that  the  teacher 
may  know  just  what  each  pupil  is  doing  at  any  hour—- 


34  PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

that  is,  what  lessons  are  being  prepared  and  by  what 
classes,  as  well  as  what  recitations  are  being  conducted. 
It  is  quite  as  necessary  to  assign  time  for  preparation  of 
lessons  as  for  recitation  and  recreation.  In  making  out 
a  programme,  it  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  different 
classes  have  an  equal  number  of  recitations.  Again, 
that  programme  is  the  best  which  provides  that  no  two 
successive  recitations  are  on  the  same  subject,  because 
those  who  are  studying  are  less  apt  to  have  their  atten- 
tion diverted  from  their  own  lessons,  or  to  get  assistance 
of  a  character  which  relieves  them  of  the  exertion  re- 
quired to  master  their  own  difficulties.  It  is  also  impor- 
tant that  the  programme  be  placed  so  that  all  in  the 
room  can  see  it.  The  pupils  should  be  taught  to  un- 
derstand it,  and  thus  learn  to  be  systematic  in  their 
work. 

As  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  subject  of  programmes, 
I  place  here  for  inspection  one  which  I  prepared  for 
country  schools.  It  shows  when  each  class  recites,  and 
what ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  what  lessons  are  being  pre- 
pared by  the  other  classes.  The  recitations  are  printed 
in  italics. 

The  same  general  plan  is  that  best  adapted  to  graded 
schools,  the  teacher  making  necessary  changes  in  the 
details. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


35 


S3 

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Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
Write  rumbers  on  slate. 
AVrite  numbers  on  slate. 
Writing  or  drawing. 

Recess. 
Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
Write  reading- lesson  on  slate. 
Write  reading-lesson  on  slate. 
Write  numbers  on  blackboard. 

Noon. 
Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
Writing  language  exercise. 
Writing  language  exercise. 
Writing  language  exercise. 

Recess. 
Writing  language  exercise. 

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Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
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Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Geography. 

Noon. 
Geography. 
Geography. 
Geography. 
Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 

Recess. 
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Read  and  spell. 
Read  and  spell. 
Language  exercise. 
Language  exercise. 

Dismiss. 

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Grammar. 
Grammar. 
Grammar. 
Arithmetic. 
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Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
History,  U.  S. 
History,  U.  S. 
Noon. 
History,  U.  S. 
Geography. 
Geography. 
Geography. 
Reading  or  etymology. 

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Intellectual  arithmetic. 
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Grammar. 
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History,  U.  S. 
History,  U.'S. 
History,  U.  S. 
History,  U.  S. 
Noon. 
History,  U.  S. 
Physiology. 
Physiology. 
Physiology. 
Physiology. 

Recess. 
Reading  or  etymology. 
Reading  or  etymology. 
Intellectual  arithmetic. 
Intellectual  arithmetic. 
Grammar. 

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36  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 


Analysis. — School  Management. 

I.   School-House. 

a.  Location. 

b.  Construction. 

1.  Heating.  3.  Lighting. 

2.  Ventilating.  4.  Seating. 
e.  Well  and  out-buildings. 

,      d.  Furniture. 

1.  Clock.  8.  Maps. 

2.  Blackboard.  4.  Charts,  etc. 
e.  Play-grounds. 

1.  Walks.  3.  Flowers. 

2.  Trees. 

II.  Organization  of  Classes* 

a.  Basis. 

b.  Ungraded  schools. 

c.  Graded  schools. 

d.  High  schools. 

e.  Colleges. 

III.  Movements  of  Classes. 

a.  How  called. 
6.  How  seated. 

c.  At  blackboard. 

d.  How  dismissed. 

IV.  Programme, 

a.  Time-table. 

b.  Preparation. 

c.  Recitation. 

d.  Subjects. 

1.  Order.  2.  Alternation. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PKINCIPLES    OF   CLASS    MANAGEMENT. 

Classes  having  been  organized,  how  to  manage 
them  becomes  an  important  problem  for  the  teacher  to 
solve.  Very  few  teachers  would  hesitate  to  confirm  the 
statement  that  "  attention  must  be  secured  before  in- 
struction can  be  given,  or  any  school  work  successfully 
done."  How  to  secure  attention  is  the  first  lesson  for 
the  teacher  to  learn.  The  ability  to  do  this  when  ap- 
pearing before  a  class  of  restless  boys  and  girls  is  an 
all-important  qualification  for  a  teacher  to  possess,  and 
especially  so  if  the  class  is  composed  of  small  children. 

It  is  not  easy  to  tell  in  words  just  how  to  get  the 
attention  of  a  class.  Some  persons  seem  gifted  with 
the  power  to  secure  and  hold  the  attention  of  any  with 
whom  they  enter  into  conversation.  Some  call  this 
power  magnetism;  we  can  not  tell  certainly.  It  may 
consist  in  the  skill  with  which  they  can  present  a  sul> 
ject ;  it  may  be  in  the  tones  of  the  voice.  Some  teach- 
ers with  soft,  low  tones  have  secured  what  commands 
could  not  have  done.  It  was  not  the  authority  of  the 
teacher  over  the  attention  of  the  child — that  the  teacher 
can  not  command  in  words.  The  faculty  of  attention 
in  the  child  must  be  cultivated,  so  that  it  shall  come 


38      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

under  the  control  of  his  own  will,  which,  in  its  turn, 
must  be  guided  by  the  teacher's  will. 

Suppose  a  teacher  appears  before  his  class  and  tries 
to  explain  something  about  a  lesson.  Half  the  class 
is  inattentive.  The  teacher  is  conscious  of  the  fact, 
and  yet  he  does  not  know  what  to  do.  The  pupils  dis- 
cover his  helplessness  and  take  advantage  of  it.  The 
teacher  fails,  and  the  school  is  demoralized. 

Yarious  devices  are  resorted  to  by  teachers  who  can 
not  easily  secure  the  attention  of  children.  They  tell 
anecdotes ;  they  offer  rewards ;  they  threaten  to  punish, 
and  do  many  other  things  equally  futile.  It  n^ay  be 
that  the  real  secret  of  securing  attention  consists,  in 
knowing  how  to  adapt  the  instruction  to  the  capacity 
of  the  learners,  how  to  interest  them,  and  get  them  to 
tell  what  they  know.  As  stated  before,  attention  is 
not  secured  by  commanding  it,  but  by  arousing  the 
mind  of  the  child  to  an  interest  in  the  subject.  Hence, 
an  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  so  to  train 
the  child  that  he  can,  by  the  exercise  of  his  own  will, 
concentrate  his  attention  upon  whatever  subject  he  has 
to  consider.  Children  do  not,  at  first,  know  how  to  do 
this ;  it  is  a  lesson  they  must  learn. 

"When  a  person  has  learned  how  to  fix  his  mind  upon 
one  subject  to  the  exclusion  of  all  else,  despite  outside 
influences,  he  becomes  the  thinker,  the  learned  man, 
the  great  man ;  and  this  power  is  what  distinguishes 
him  from  the  ignorant  man.  It  is  not  absent-minded- 
ness, it  is  not  forgetful ness,  but  it  is  the  ability  to  take 
a  subject,  think  only  of  it,  turn  it  over  and  over,  as  it 
were,  in  the  mind  till  it  is  understood  ;  beginning  in 
the  darkness  of  ignorance,  soon  letting  in  a  little  gleam 


PRINCIPLES   OF   CLASS   MANAGEMENT.  39 

of  light,  the  very  faintest  ray,  perhaps,  but  leading 
out  into  the  broad  sunlight  of  knowledge  through  what 
seemed  impenetrable  darkness,  the  darkness  of  igno- 
rance. 

The  teacher  who  would  lead  a  class  out  of  ignorance 
into  knowledge,  and  attain  the  highest  success  in  class- 
management,  must  himself  possess  this  power — that  is, 
lie  must  be  able  to  bring  his  own  faculty  of  attention 
entirely  under  the  control  of  his  own  will.  Then,  and 
then  only,  is  he  prepared  to  control  the  attention  of  a 
class. 

We  can  conceive  how  a  stone  can  grow  by  accre- 
tions to  the  outside,  but  we  can  not  conceive  how  a 
human  being  can  grow  physically  by  such  a  process. 
It  is  true  he  might  be  encased  in  the  shell  of  a  mol- 
lusk,  and  thus  appear  to  be  enlarged  externally,  but  it 
would  not  be  true  growth.  Neither  would  it  be  true 
growth  for  the  child  to  be  covered  all  over,  if  that  were 
possible,  with  knowledge  as  with  a  plaster. 

Physical  growth  is  produced  by  the  assimilation  of 
the  material  used  for  food  and  drink,  and  conveyed  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  body.  We  do  not  quite  un- 
derstand the  process,  but  the  material  is  gathered  and 
passes  through  the  changes  wrought  by  the  various  or- 
gans of  digestion  till  it  is  prepared  for  assimilation  and 
enters  into  the  life-blood  of  the  individual. 

And  thus  we  grow  intellectually.  Information — ■ 
food  for  thought — is  gathered  through  the  senses  into 
the  mind,  and  by  the  mind  itself  is  prepared  for  as- 
similation, giving  mental  growth  in  the  very  effort. 

Again,  the  teacher  should  not  forget  that  his  pupils 
must  get  knowledge,  must  have  ideas,  and  must  learn 


£0      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

how  to  express  these  ideas.  If  tlie  teacher  does  all  the 
talking,  all  the  reciting,  the  pupils  are  being  robbed 
of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  recitation.  The 
pupil  must  recite,  not  the  teacher.  Can  a  child  learn 
to  walk  if  not  permitted  to  use  his  own  feet  ?  Can  he 
learn  how  to  express  his  thoughts  if  not  permitted  to 
try  'I  The  teacher  must  guide,  must  lead  over  the  diffi- 
cult places,  must  encourage  the  feeble,  but  must  not  do 
the  work,  must  not  recite  for  the  child. 

A  hungry  child  remains  hungry  still  if  he  has  but 
looked  wistfully  on  while  another  has  eaten  the  food. 
The  hungry  one  represents  the  pupil  who  desires  knowl- 
edge, and  the  other  the  teacher  who  recites,  who  talks  all 
the  time.  What  would  be  thought  of  the  teacher  who 
should  argue  as  follows :  "  Should  I  not  recite  at  least 
half  the  time  ?  Am  I  not  here  for  that  purpose  ?  Am 
I  not  to  help  the  pupils  ?  I  am  the  teacher,  and  I  must 
talk  about  the  lesson  to  them.  I  can  do  it  better  than 
they  can." 

Neither  should  the  teacher  be  an  interrogation- 
point,  doing  nothing  but  asking  questions,  or  reading 
them  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  while  the  pupils  fol- 
low with  their  fingers  and  glance  at  the  answers  as 
given  above.  That  teacher  is  wise  who  is  able  to 
control  his  tongue  and  not  talk  too  much.  The  apostle 
was  right  when  he  called  the  tongue  an  "unruly  mem- 
ber." 

The  teacher  must  explain  lessons,  but  the  explana- 
tions should  be  appropriate  and  pointed,  so  that  even 
the  dullest  pupils  can  understand  them. 

The  above  point  suggests  another.  The  teacher 
should  manage  to  reach  every  pupil  during  every  reci- 


PRINCIPLES  OP  CLASS  MANAGEMENT.  41 

tation,  but  no  one  should  know  when  he  is  to  be  called 
on.  The  question  should  be  asked  first,  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  apply  to  one  pupil  as  well  as  to 
another,  making  all  feel  responsible  for  the  answer,  and 
then  some  one  called  on  to  recite.  It  is  not  as  though 
each  had  a  separate  u  grist  to  grind,"  and  must  stand 
in  the  line  waiting  his  turn,  as  did  the  people  in  olden 
times,  when  each  of  those  who  went  to  the  mill  had  to 
wait  in  the  line  "  till  his  corn  was  ground  and  he  could 
get  his  meal." 

Knowledge  is  not  like  meal ;  each  can  take  all,  and 
yet  all  is  left  for  the  next  hungry  mind.  No  one  is 
robbed,  and  all  gain  mental  strength  as  well  as  knowl- 
edge. The  faculty  of  attention  is  receiving  cultivation, 
and  the  teacher  is  no  longer  troubled  about  how  to 
secure  attention.  The  difficult  problem  is  being  solved 
in  a  safer  way  than  the  "  going  up  and  down  "  method 
formerly  so  much  in  vogue,  and  the  lesson  of  the  day 
is  not  lost. 

In  certain  schools  it  was  the  custom  for  the  pupil 
who  carae  first  to  school  to  recite  first ;  and,  if  there  was 
a  class  recitation,  the  head  pupil  recited  first,  and  then 
waited  till  every  other  member  of  the  class  had  been 
called  on,  when  it  came  his  turn  again.  If  it  was  a 
reading  lesson,  the  head  boy  read  his  "  verse,"  whether 
in  prose  or  poetry ;  the  second  boy  his,  and  so  on  down 
the  clask  If  there  were  not  enough  u  verses  to  go 
round,"  the  recitation  was  ended.  Occasionally,  the 
words  in  the  reading  lesson  were  spelled.  In  the  spell- 
ing classes,  a  good  speller  would  spell  nearly  all  the 
words.  If  a  pupil  missed  a  word,  it  was  passed  quickly 
to  the  (t  next,"  and  the  "  next,"  and  the  "  next,"  till  it 


42      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

got  to  a  good  speller,  who  usually  stood  at  the  head  and 
did  most  of  the  spelling. 

How  will  that  compare  with  a  recitation  like  this  ? 
It  was  a  class  in  Latin,  and  all  the  boys  and  all  the  girls 
wanted  to  answer.  If  one  happened  to  make  a  mistake, 
the  hands  of  all  the  others  went  up,  showing  that  all 
were  held  responsible  for  the  lesson.  The  teacher 
called  on  one  after  another,  but  in  such  a  manner  that 
no  one  knew  when  his  turn  would  come.  In  a  certain 
celebrated  college  in  which  there  are  many  very  learned 
men,  I  once  heard  a  lesson  in  chemistry  recited.  The 
class  was  seated,  and  the  "  professor"  called  on  Mr.  A 
to  recite,  and  Mr.  A  stood  up  and  told  all  he  knew 
about  the  subject,  and  was  excused.  Then  the  "  pro- 
fessor" called  on  Mr.  B,  and  Mr.  B  gave  attention. 
But,  while  Mr.  A  was  reciting,  I  noticed  that  Mr.  Y 
and  Mr.  Z  were  busy  upon  other  work,  and  did  not 
seem  at  all  interested  in  what  Mr.  A  was  saying.  When 
Mr.  B  got  through,  Mr.  C  prepared  for  consultation, 
and  waited  with  a  great  show  of  respect  for  the  question 
which  he  knew  was  sure  to  come,  and  his  recitation  was 
a  repetition  of  what  Mr.  A  and  Mr.  B  had  said.  In 
this  way  the  very  distinguished  professor  worked  on  till 
he  got  through  with  Mr.  Z.  This,  I  learned,  was  con- 
sidered a  model  recitation.  I  should  add  that  the  very 
celebrated  professor  would  not  allow  students  to  per- 
form experiments  in  chemistry  "  lest  they  break  some 
of  the  little  jars." 

The  same  system,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  is  pursued  in 
some  other  institutions  of  learning.  There  is  this  diffi- 
culty— so  many  teachers  can  only  copy,  copy,  COPY, 
doing  just  what  their  grandfathers  did,  and  in  precisely 


PRINCIPLES   OF  CLASS  MANAGEMENT.  43 

the  same  way.  Some  teachers  still  insist  upon  doing 
everything  jnst  as  it  was  done  by  those  who  came  over 
in  the  early  days  from  England  and  Holland.  In  these 
later  days  we  oppose  some  of  those  old  methods,  and 
say  they  are  not  the  best.  Not  a  few  living  persons  can 
remember  when  geometry  was  taught  by  "  rote."  The 
"  professor "  was  often  a  person  who  knew  nothing 
about  geometry.  A  certain  number  of  propositions 
were  given  for  a  lesson,  and  their  numbers  were  written 
on  pieces  of  paper  and  placed  on  the  table.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  class,  one  after  the  other,  drew  each  his  lot, 
and  examined  it  to  see  whether  it  contained  a  prize  or 
blank.  Whoever  drew  a  numbered  paper  recited  ver- 
batim the  demonstration  of  the  proposition  having  the 
same  number ;  but  those  who  drew  blanks  had  nothing 
to  do. 

The  temptation  to  encourage  bright  pupils  to  do  all 
the  reciting  is  one  which  teachers  should  resist.  The 
bright  children  might  be  benefited,  but  such  a  course 
is  intellectual  death  to  the  dull  ones.  The  latter  should 
receive  increased  attention ;  the  points  over  which  they 
struggle  should  be  developed,  and  the  whole  class  bene- 
fited thereby. 

Let  us  take  this  circle,  O,  to  represent  the  positive 
knowledge  that  is  possessed  by  the  pupil.  Beyond  this 
he  has  some  vague  ideas  of  some  subjects,  and  these 
may  be  supposed  to  form  a  hazy  outline  to  the  circle  of 
his  definite  knowledge.  This  circle  is  to  be  enlarged 
by  investigations  in  the  misty  regions  beyond. 

Different  subjects  lie  in  different  directions.    In  one 

direction  there  may  be  natural  history,  and  the  teacher 

desires  to  expand  the^upl^mmd  in  that  direction. 

4 


44      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

To  do  this,  some  definite  questions  must  be  asked  ;  the 
pupil  set  to  thinking.  He  must  be  encouraged  to  tell 
what  he  thinks,  and  then  be  required  to  get  some  defi- 
nite knowledge  by  further  investigation  out  in  that 
misty  region.  He  has  been  shown  how  to  find  his  way, 
and  it  is  now  time  to  observe  a  principle,  too  often  over- 
looked, that  the  teacher  should  get  a  pupil  to  do  all  he 
can  for  himself,  and  not  do  his  work  for  him.  u  Why," 
says  a  student,  "  is  it  not  better  for  me,  if  I  have  studied 
a  subject  over  and  found  it  difficult,  to  get  the  teacher 
to  do  it  for  me  \  It  would  save  me  so  much  labor,  and 
it  is  the  teacher's  business  to  help  me,  to  make  my  work 
easy  for  me."  Pupils  would  usually  be  pleased  to  have 
the  teacher  do  all  the  difficult  work  for  them  ;  but  those 
who  can  be  induced  to  study  a  subject  and  master  its 
difficulties  alone  will  be  most  profited.  The  teacher 
should  suggest  the  direction  and  method  of  study  for 
pupils,  and  then,  having  put  them  on  the  road  to  certain 
knowledge,  watch  their  progress.  Having  given  them 
the  clew,  he  should  be  sure  that  they  have  made  an 
effort  before  he  helps,  and  then  not  help  them  too  much ; 
only  just  enough  to  help  them  help  themselves.  By 
their  own  mental  effort  comes  their  own  mental  growth. 
We  are  told  that  one  of  the  Greeks  had  a  problem  to 
solve,  and  that,  after  he  had  spent  some  time  in  study- 
ing it  over,  he  noticed  that  when  he  got  into  a  bath-tub 
partly  filled  with  water  the  water  rose,  and  that  when 
he  got  out  it  sank  again.  He  thought  of  this  for  some 
time,  and  then  rushed  out  crying  "  Eureka  1  w  He  had 
solved  his  difficult  problem ;  he  could  find  the  cubical 
contents  of  an  irregular  solid  by  immersing  it  in  a  ves- 
sel full  of  water  and  measuring  the  water  that  ran  over. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   CLASS  MANAGEMENT.  45 

A  teacher  asked  a  class  to  tell  him  the  number  of 
cubic  inches  in  a  large  irregular  stone.  They  looked  at 
it,  but  there  was  no  solid  like  it.  Some  tried  to  divide 
it  into  triangular  pyramids.  They  examined  it  very 
carefully.  The  teacher  gave  them  more  time  for  the 
study  of  the  problem.  The  next  day  came,  and  several 
members  of  the  class  had  learned  that  they  could  meas- 
ure it  by  putting  the  stone  into  water  and  seeing  how 
far  the  water  rose  in  the  vessel.  They  remembered 
their  own  discovery  better  than  if  the  teacher  had  told 
them,  and  the  gain  in  mental  power  was  of  more  value 
to  them  than  any  help  the  teacher  might  have  given. 
Men  have  been  known  to  work  on  one  problem  five 
years  or  more  before  they  conquered  its  difficulties. 

Assistance  must,  of  course,  be  given  ;  but  when  and 
how  given  are  important  questions.  A  certain  teacher 
whom  I  once  knew  used  to  walk  around  the  school- 
room to  see  how  her  pupils  were  getting  along.  If 
they  were  at  work  on  a  "sum,"  she  would  explain 
it  and  "  work  it  out "  for  them.  If  they  were  studying 
a  geography  lesson,  she  would  pronounce  and  explain 
all  the  hard  words.  She  would  even  remain  after 
school  to  help  them  prepare  their  lessons.  She  made 
a  mistake  in  doing  this.  Help  should  be  given  before 
the  whole  class  and  during  the  time  of  recitation,  and 
never  at  any  other  time.  Tupils  may  complain  of  this, 
but  it  is  the  better  way,  especially  for  advanced  pupils. 
"Why?  may  be  asked.  Because,  if  an  explanation  is 
necessary,  the  whole  class  should  hear  it  given ;  the 
teacher  of  large  classes  can  not  afford  to  give  private 
tuition  to  each  member.  With  such  a  precedent  estab- 
lished in  the  case  of  one  pupil,  others  will  soon  de- 


4G      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

mand  it,  and  the  teacher  dare  not  then  refuse,  and  soon 
becomes  a  slave  to  her  pupils,  who  will  neglect  pur^ 
posely  the  preparation  of  lessons  at  the  proper  time. 
Inattention  results  during  the  recitation,  and  the  pupils 
are  forming  the  bad  habit  of  u  procrastination."  Re- 
member that  part  of  the  time  of  a  recitation  rightfully 
belongs  to  explanations  for  which  the  pupils  then  may 
ask.  And  it  is  just  as  important  that  they  should  im- 
prove this  time  as  any  other,  and  be  held  to  strict 
account  for  it.  I  have  seen  schools  in  which  .the 
teacher,  while  engaged  in  conducting  a  recitation,  was 
continually  interrupted  by  pupils  coming  from  their 
seats  to  ask  unimportant  questions,  and  to  get  help 
which  they  did  not  need.  If  they  are  permitted  to  do 
this,  is  it  possible  for  the  recitation  to  be  of  any  value 
to  the  class  ?  Can  a  teacher  do  more  than  one  thing  at 
a  time  ? 

Just  imagine  a  case  like  this :  The  teacher  is  con- 
ducting a  recitation  in  arithmetic.  A  boy  who  belongs 
to  another  class  is  preparing  a  spelling-lesson ;  he  looks 
at  the  first  word,  names  the  letters  over  to  himself,  runs 
up  to  the  teacher,  who  stops  whatever  she  is  doing  to 
pronounce  the  word  for  him.  By  the  time  he  gets  to 
his  seat  he  has  named  over  the  letters  in  another  word. 
He  drops  into  his  seat,  but  bounces  out  immediately, 
and  runs  to  the  teacher,  who  stops  again  to  pronounce 
the  second  word  for  him.  The  performance  is  re- 
peated again  and  again,  till  the  teacher  has  pronounced 
every  word  in  his  lesson.  He  is  not  the  only  one. 
Other  pupils  have  as  much  right  to  demand  help  as  he 
has,  and  the  continual  interruption  becomes  an  intoler- 
able nuisance. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  CLASS  MANAGEMENT.  47 

A  strict  observance  of  the  rule  "  to  help  only  during 
the  time  of  recitation  "  will  not  interfere  with  a  gen- 
eral supervision  of  all  pupils  in  a  room.  If  they  are 
under  good  discipline,  and  have  been  properly  trained 
at  the  beginning  of  the  term,  they  will  not  think  of  in- 
terrupting a  recitation,  but  will  devote  the  time  to  quiet 
study. 

Formerly,  very  little  attention  was  given  in  schools 
to  any  written  work  outside  of  the  regular  lessons  in 
writing.  It  is  now  quite  the  custom  to  divide  the  time 
of  recitation  about  equally  between  oral  and  written 
work,  and,  while  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  oral 
recitation  are  not  lost,  the  written  work  affords  better 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  reach  and  criticise  the 
work  of  every  one. 

It  has  been  said  before,  but  will  bear  repeating, 
"  Train  pupils  to  use  their  own  language."  Let  each 
express  his  ideas  in  his  own  way,  then  criticise  and 
correct  Be  not  too  severe  and  discourage  him,  but 
make  criticisms  so  as  not  to  wound  his  feelings.  Yoa 
can  test  the  accuracy  of  knowledge  by  the  language 
used,  unless  it  is  a  verbatim  reproduction  of  that  found 
in  the  book. 

There  must  be  system,  vigor,  life  in  all  good  school- 
work.  The  teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity 
of  the  pupil,  and  the  steps  in  passing  from  the  known 
should  be  made  easy. 

What  a  teacher  says  should  be  said  in  a  definite, 
incisive  manner,  showing  confidence  in  self  and  in- 
spiring it  in  pupils.  The  teacher  must  be  wide  awake, 
must  believe  in  his  own  ability  to  succeed,  but  must 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  he  ought  to  be  progressive, 


48      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

and  never  think  himself  too  old  to  learn.  He  may  be 
self-confident,  but  not  egotistical ;  must  have  that  kind 
of  self-confidence  which  insures  success. 


II.  Class  Management. 

1.  Secure  attention  by  right  methods. 

2.  Adapt  instruction  to  capacities. 

III.  The  Recitation. 

1.  Length. 

a.  Primary  classes. 

b.  Grammar  classes. 

c.  High  schools. 

d.  Normal  schools. 

e.  Colleges. 

2.  Division  of  time. 

a.  Review.  1.  Definition. 

b.  Lesson  of  the  day.  2.  Object. 

c.  Criticisms.  3.  Howl 

d.  General  information.  4.  When  f 

e.  Talk  about  the  next  lesson.  5.  By  whom  ? 
8.  Assignment  of  lesson. 

a.  Subjects  rather  than  pages. 

b.  Lessons  too  short  rather  than  too  long. 

c.  Instruction — how  to  prepare. 
4.  Object. 

a.  To  gain  knowledge. 

b.  Mental  development. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

METHODS    OF    CONDUCTING     RECITATIONS — DIRECTIONS     TO 
PUPILS — DIRECTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

There  are  three  elements  to  be  considered  in  con- 
nection with  every  recitation,  not  including  the  subject- 
matter  :  First,  the  method  of  conducting  the  recitation  ; 
secondly,  the  pupils  or  persons  to  be  benefited  by  the 
recitation ;  and,  thirdly,  the  teacher  or  person  who  con- 
ducts the  recitation. 

Under  methods  there  are  three  divisions :  recitations 
may  be  entirely  oral,  entirely  written,  or  a  combination 
of  the  two  methods.  In  advanced  classes  it  is  well  to 
have  recitations  about  half  oral  and  half  written. 

There  are  advantages  in  both  oral  and  written  reci- 
tations, but  neither  should  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  other. 

If  a  recitation  be  oral,  it  must  be  either  individual 
or  concert,  or  both,  the  time  occupied  in  recitation  being 
divided  between  the  two. 

If  the  recitations  are  by  individuals,  the  choice  lies 
between  the  consecutive  and  promiscuous  methods.  By 
the  consecutive  method,  the  pupil  at  the  head  of  the 
class  is  required  to  answer  first,  then  the  next,  and  so 
on,  in  the  order  of  their  positions  in  the   class.     A 


50    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

serious  objection  to  this  method  is  that  pupils  soon 
learn  to  keep  tally  with  the  number  of  questions,  and 
make  close  calculations  as  to  what  questions  are  likely  to 
come  to  them,  and  will  learn  to  answer  only  those,  neg- 
lecting other  parts  of  the  lesson  entirely.  The  plan 
of  calling  on  pupils  promiscuously  is  much  better,  secur- 
ing more  surely  the  attention  of  the  whole  class  to  every 
part  of  the  lesson,  and  making  each  member  of  the  class 
feel  that  he  is  responsible  for  the  answer  to  every  ques- 
tion that  may  be  asked,  or  for  the  omission  of  any 
point  in  the  lesson  if  the  recitation  is  by  other  than  the 
method  of  questions  and  answers. 

As  a  general  thing,  recitations  in  concert  should  be 
avoided,  and,  if  used  at  all,  should  be  very  sparingly 
used,  never  exclusively.  Yet  the  concert  recitation  has, 
perhaps,  advantages.  Some  children  are  very  timid,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  get  them  to  speak  so  as  to  be  heard.  A 
concert  recitation  may  give  courage  to  6uch  as  these, 
but,  if  the  courage  thus  gained  is  not  sustained  and  ap- 
plied to  individual  work,  even  this  is  a  doubtful  advan- 
tage, and  courage  had  better  be  developed  in  some  other 
way.  A  very  skillful  teacher  may  use  it  in  teaching 
reading  when  pupils  have  difficulty  in  pronouncing 
words,  or  are  inclined  to  read  too  rapidly,  or  when  he 
wishes  to  harmonize  voices  and  bring  them  to  a  uniform 
pitch.  It  is  also  useful  in  teaching  inflections.  Few 
teachers,  however,  are  able  to  conduct  concert  recita- 
tions without  allowing  pupils  to  acquire  the  sing-song 
habit,  which,  once  acquired,  is  almost  impossible  to  get 
rid  of. 

When  a  teacher  can  not  prevent  this  sing-song  in 
concert  recitation,  he  should  banish  the  method  from 


METHODS  OF  CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS.  51 

his  school-room.  The  effort  to  counteract  the  sing-song 
habit  produces  results  but  little  better  in  reading.  Here 
is  an  illustration :  Not  long  since  I  heard  a  class  of  in- 
telligent children  read.  In  conversation,  their  words 
were  very  naturally  spoken ;  but  when  they  read  it  was 
very  different.  They  had  often  recited  in  concert,  and 
could  sing  it  off  in  fine  style.  To  break  up  this  habit, 
they  were  required  to  stop  after  every  syllable.  This, 
too,  was  a  severe  struggle.  Every  feature  of  their  faces 
assumed  a  rigid  aspect.  The  muscles  of  their  bodies 
were  strained  to  the  highest  pitch,  and  they  read  this 
simple  exercise,  "  Gyp  was  going  to  the  mill,  and  he 
saw  a  frog,"  with  a  laborious  effort,  cutting  and  snap- 
ping at  the  words  in  a  frightful  manner.  There  was 
no  variation  in  pitch,  there  was  no  attention  to  em- 
phasis, and  every  syllable  was  jerked  out  and  snapped 
off  as  if  the  pupils  were  afraid  of  their  own  voices, 
which  sounded  so  unnatural  because  of  the  great  exer- 
tion they  were  making  to  read  as  the  teacher  had 
directed.  A  small  boy  was  asked  to  read  it.  It  was  a 
repetition  of  what  the  class  had  done.  When  he  closed 
the  book  and  repeated  it,  he  threw  off  that  stiffness 
which  hampered  him  when  he  tried  to  read  from  the 
book,  and  his  tones  at  once  dropped  into  the  conversa- 
tional style.  When  this  habit  is  once  acquired,  it  takes 
months  to  break  it  up. 

It  is  best,  I  think,  to  conduct  the  recitations  of  small 
children  by  asking  questions  which  they  must  answer. 
They  have  not  the  power  of  continued  attention,  and 
should  not  be  required  to  do  more  than  they  can  do 
easily  till  they  have  learned  how  to  study,  and  they 
can   not  study  so  as  to  master  a  topic  till  they  have 


52      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

learned  how  to  read  that  from  which  they  must  study 
for  recitation. 

Timid  children  must  have  a  little  help  and  much 
encouragement  until  they  get  well  acquainted. 

For  larger  children,  the  topical  method  is  used  to 
great  advantage,  as  it  makes  them  rely  more  upon  them- 
selves to  remember  all  the  points  in  the  lesson,  and 
forces  them  to  greater  effort  in  the  use  of  language. 
The  questions  asked  by  the  teacher  are  often  very  sug- 
gestive, giving  a  clew  td  the  pupil  which  helps  him, 
even  though  they  may  not  be  leading  questions. 

If  the  classes  are  very  large,  a  variation  of  the  top- 
ical method  is  sometimes  adopted.  The  different  topics 
are  assigned  to  different  pupils,  each  being  required  to 
report  upon  his  topic  such  information  as  he  can  get. 
This  gives  a  collection  of  reports  upon  which  they  can 
institute  comparisons,  study  and  discuss  relations,  and 
so  develop  the  thinking  faculties.  This  method  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  classes  in  rhetoric,  literature,  and 
the  natural  sciences. 

Teaching  by  lectures  can  scarcely  be  called  a  recita- 
tion, but  the  same  results  are  sought  to  be  accomplished. 
In  the  German  universities  the  students  never  recite. 
They  listen  to  the  lectures,  take  notes,  and  study  up  the 
subject.  Then,  as  I  understand  it,  when  they  are  to  be 
examined  for  graduation,  each  one  goes  alone  before  the 
faculty,  and  is  questioned  by  all  its  members. 

Sometimes  it  is  advantageous  for  a  recitation  to  take 
the  form  of  a  discussion.  Among  older  students,  this 
is  both  interesting  and  profitable,  and  is  admirably 
adapted  to  some  of  the  subjects  taught  in  normal 
schools  and  colleges. 


METHODS  OF  CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS.  53 

Again,  there  is  the  reciprocal  method,  which  may  be 
profitably  used  in  ordinary  school-work,  and  in  most  of 
the  grades.  In  this,  the  teacher  asks  a  question,  and 
calls  on  "  A  "  to  recite.  When  "  A "  has  recited,  he 
asks  another  question,  and  calls  on  u  Z  "  to  recite.  M  Z  " 
answers,  and  calls  on  some  one  else  to  recite.  In  this 
wray  the  whole  lesson  is  recited,  the  questions  and  an- 
swers passing  from  one  to  another  till  all  have  taken 
part.  If  one  pupil  can  not  give  a  complete  answer,  he 
may  call  on  some  one  else  to  finish  what  he  has  begun. 
This  method  is  particularly  useful,  in  that  it  is  apt  to 
excite  considerable  animation  among  the  members  of 
a  class. 

Recitations  entirely  written  are  not  common,  nor  are 
they  to  be  desired  except  for  examinations. 

The  combination  of  oral  and  written  recitations  is 
usually  that  in  which  pupils  are  required  to  write  a  dia- 
gram or  outline  of  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  and  then 
to  recite  from  what  they  have  written.  It  can  not  be 
very  well  employed  with  small  children,  but  with 
larger  ones,  and  through  the  school  course,  beginning  in 
the  middle  grades,  it  is  valuable,  because  it  formulates 
and  systematizes  the  knowledge  gained,  so  arranging  it 
in  the  mind  as  to  make  it  available  whenever  it  is  needed 
for  use. 

Knowledge  to  be  available  must  be  classified.  He 
who  does  this  by  means  of  outlines,  or  diagrams,  has 
his  information  at  his  command  and  ready  for  use,  and 
is  far  better  prepared  than  he  who  leaves  it  "lying 
around  loose." 


54      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 
DIRECTIONS   TO   PUPILS. 

There  are  directions  to  be  given  to  pupils  which 
they  must  be  required  to  observe.  The  first  is  this : 
"Stand  or  sit  erect."  Some  of  them  have  shoulders 
that  tip  forward ;  some  have  not  a  strong  digestive  aj> 
paratus,  and,  if  they  are  allowed  to  bend  forward,  their 
vital  organs  will  be  cramped  and  weakened.  This  di- 
rection has  special  reference  to  the  care  of  their  health, 
and  upon  its  observance  much  of  their  success  as  students 
depends.  It  does  not  mean  that  they  should  always  sit 
bolt  upright,  though  it  is  better  to  do  this  than  to  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  dropping  the  shoulders  forward  and 
contracting  the  chest,  so  that  the  lungs  can  not  expand 
as  they  need  to  do  in  performing  their  functions. 

A  close  observer  will  notice  that  a  person  breathing 
takes  every  fourth  or  fifth  breath  fuller,  deeper  than  the 
others,  and  thus  unconsciously  performs  the  act  of  ex- 
pelling impure  air  from  the  lungs.  The  person  whose 
blood  is  in  good  condition  is  in  good  health ;  but  this 
is  impossible  if  the  blood  is  not  purified  by  contact  with 
pure  air  as  it  passes  through  the  lungs  on  its  way  back 
to  the  heart  after  its  journey  as  scavenger  through  the 
circulatory  system.  Drowsiness  is  a  result  of  impure 
blood,  and  perfect  mental  development  is  checked. 

The  class  must  understand  all  signals,  and  move 
promptly  and  quietly  when  they  are  given.  It  is  worth 
while  to  spend  several  hours  drilling  pupils  to  a  military 
precision  in  all  school  movements.  The  teacher  who 
will  do  this  establishes  his  authority  in  the  school  at  the 
beginning,  saves  time,  and  avoids  much  subsequent  fric 
tion  which  might  otherwise  occur. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  PUPILS.  55 

Not  only  must  pupils  be  taught  to  move  promptly, 
but  quietly  ;  there  should  be  no  stamping,  no  tramping. 
This  has  been  spoken  of  before ;  but  repetitions  are 
sometimes  necessary — they  do  not  need  to  walk  with 
their  hands  behind  them,  nor  on  their  toes.  They  can 
walk  quietly,  easily,  and  naturally,  placing  their  feet 
iirmly  and  squarely  on  the  floor.  The  tip-toe  walking 
required  by  many  teachers  in  order  to  avoid  noise  is 
unnatural  and  ungraceful,  resulting  too  often  in  perma- 
nent awkwardness,  and  should  not  be  tolerated  a  mo- 
ment. Suppose  they  do  make  a  little  noise ;  better 
that  than  to  destroy  the  natural  grace  of  childish  move- 
ments. 

Pupils  should  at  all  times  be  polite  to  their  teacher 
and  to  one  another.  A  strict  observance  of  this  rule  will 
make  school-life  both  pleasant  and  profitable,  and  form 
a  habit  which  will  be  an  advantage  to  them  when  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  world  in  after  life. 

Each  pupil  must  recite  in  his  own  words.  This  is  a 
necessary  requirement.  It  does  not  mean  that  his  lan- 
guage must  be  elegant ;  it  may  be  even  incorrect ;  but 
his  ability  to  express  whatever  ideas  he  may  have  in  his 
own  words  indicates  that  he  understands  what  he  has 
been  studying.  If  he  has  mispronounced  words,  or  his 
language  has  been  grammatically  incorrect,  corrections 
may  be  made  afterward.  I  have  heard  pupils  recite 
history  and  other  lessons  verbatim,  when  they  had  no 
idea  whatever  of  the  meaning  of  the  words  they  were 
repeating. 

Another  direction  to  pupils  in  close  connection  with 
the  last  is  to  give  every  answer  in  a  complete  sentence. 
If  they  have  the  thought,  they  should  be  able  to  give 


56      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

entire  expression  to  it.  In  no  other  way  can  their 
knowledge  of  a  lesson  or  subject  be  thoroughly  tested. 

Pupils  must  not  "  prompt "  or  assist  one  another. 
Each  must  depend  upon  himself  if  he  would  get  the 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  recitation. 

They  may  raise  hands,  provided,  first,  that  no  one 
is  speaking — politeness  requires  the  observance  of  this 
rule ;  secondly,  when  they  can  answer ;  thirdly,  when 
they  can  add  to  an  answer ;  fourthly,  when  they  wish 
to  criticise ;  fifthly,  when  they  wish  to  ask  a  question ; 
sixthly,  when  they  wish  to  communicate  with  another 
pupil. 

They  should  always  speak  in  low  tones,  not  too 
rapidly,  and  always  distinctly. 

DIRECTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 

The  last  direction  to  pupils  applies  to  teachers  as 
well,  for  how  can  they  expect  pupils  to  speak  in  low 
tones  of  voice,  slowly  and  distinctly,  if  they  do  not 
themselves  set  the  example  ? 

Neither  should  the  teacher  "  prompt "  in  recitation 
or  examination,  though  the  temptation  to  do  so  is  very 
great.  "  Prompting  "  another  destroys  self-confidence 
and  degrades  self-respect.  It  is  an  unkind  act,  however 
well  intentioned.  The  sooner  the  pupil  learns  that  self- 
help  is  the  best  help,  the  better  it  is  for  him. 

The  teacher  should  be  polite  to  pupils.  It  always 
pays.  One  point  I  would  insist  upon  is,  that  no  teacher 
should  ever  address  a  pupil  by  his  surname  without  pre- 
fixing a  title.  It  is  both  coarse  and  rude.  In  address- 
ing a  young  lady,  the  title  "  Miss"  should  be  prefixed  to 
the  surname.    In  speaking  to  a  young  gentleman,  speak 


DIRECTIONS  TO  TEACHERS.  57 

to  Mm  in  a  respectful  manner,  using  the  title  "  Mr."  or 
"  Master."  In  the  case  of  younger  pupils  you  may  use 
their  given  names,  but  the  manner  should  never  be 
other  than  polite.  Politeness,  even  to  the  verge  of  for- 
mality, does  not  weaken  the  authority  of  a  teacher,  but 
strengthens  it  by  securing  and  retaining  the  respect  of 
pupils. 

Do  not  repeat  questions.  This  habit  on  the  part  of 
a  teacher  encourages  carelessness  and  inattention  on  the 
part  of  pupils. 

Do  not  repeat  answers.  It  is  not  necessary ;  it 
wastes  time,  and  makes  the  teacher  appear  like  an  echo- 
ing machine. 

Govern  yourself ;  do  not  get  angry.  Never  let 
pupils  see  that  you  are  annoyed.  Nothing  so  delights 
mischievous  or  vicious  pupils  so  much  as  to  see  that 
they  can  annoy  the  teacher,  and  they  are  quick  to  follow 
up  an  advantage  thus  gained.  Woe  to  the  teacher  who 
thus  places  herself  at  the  mercy  of  "  young  tyrants  "  ! 

Govern  your  own  pupils.  Do  not  show  weakness 
by  asking  the  principal  or  school-board  to  come  to  your 
assistance  unless  in  a  great  emergency.  The  teacher 
who  is  continually  referring  cases  of  discipline  to  the 
principal  or  board  can  not  long  maintain  control  of  her 
pupils. 

Again,  a  teacher  or  person  in  charge  of  a  school- 
room is  supposed  to  be  able  to  manage  it,  and  all  com- 
munications to  or  by  any  one  in  it  should  be  made 
through  her  or  by  her  permission.  No  person  has  a 
right  to  disregard  this  rule,  whether  a  pupil  or  other 
person. 

Should  a  superintendent,  director,  or  any  one  in  real 


58      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

authority,  even  over  the  person  in  charge,  wish  to  cross 
the  room,  or  to  address  any  one  in  it,  he  has  no  right 
to  do  so  without  iirst  being  recognized  by,  and  obtaining 
permission  from,  the  person  in  charge.  The  proper  in- 
fluences can  not  be  exerted  in  a  school  where  the  rights 
of  all  are  not  duly  respected. 

Teachers  should  take  care  of  their  health,  and  bring 
vigor  of  body  and  mind  to  the  recitation. 

They  should  always  prepare  the  lesson.  Even  if  it 
is  a  simple  subject,  the  teacher  should  know  just  what 
is  in  it,  and  the  ideas  of  the  author  of  the  text-book 
used.  He  should  know  just  how  he  intends  teaching 
it,  and  how  to  meet  and  explain  difficulties  apt  to  arise 
in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The  teacher  who  thinks 
there  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  u  grind  out  the  lesson 
of  the  day  by  asking  a  few  set  questions  "  and  listening 
to  the  corresponding  answers  has  much  to  learn.  New 
fields  are  opening  all  the  time,  and  teachers  must  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  if  they  would  succeed.  There  is 
a  spirit  to  be  brought  out,  developed,  in  the  boys  and 
girls.  It  is  for  the  teacher  to  arouse  and  direct  the 
energies  of  her  pupils,  so  that  they  will  become  inter- 
ested, and  do  their  best  in  every  recitation. 

The  words  and  acts  of  teachers  should  be  such  as  to 
honor  their  profession. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  TEACHERS.  59 

Methods  of  Conducting  Recitations. 

1.  Oral. 

a.  Individual. 

1.  Consecutive.  2.  Promiscuous. 

b.  Concert. 

c.  Questions  and  answers. 

d.  Topical. 

e.  Lectures. 

/.  Discussions. 
g.  Reciprocal. 

2.  Written. 

3.  Oral  and  written. 

a.  Diagrams. 

b.  Outlines. 

Directions  to  Pupils 

1.  Stand  or  sit  erect. 

2.  Obey  signals. 

a.  Promptly. 

b.  Quietly. 

3.  Be  polite. 

a.  To  teachers. 

b.  To  one  another. 

c.  To  everybody. 

4.  Give  answers. 

a.  In  your  own  words. 

b.  In  complete  sentences. 

5.  Do  not  prompt. 

6.  Raise  hands — when 

a.  No  one  is  speaking. 

b.  You  can  answer. 

c.  You  can  add  to  answer. 

d.  You  wish  to  criticise. 

e.  You  wish  to  ask  a  question. 

/.  You  wish  to  communicate  with  any  one. 

7.  Speak. 

a.  In  low  tones. 

b.  Slowly. 

c.  Distinctly. 


60      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Directions  to  Teachers. 

1.  Speak. 

a.  In  low  tones. 

b.  Slowly. 

c.  Distinctly. 

2.  Do  not  prompt. 

a.  In  recitation. 

b.  In  examination, 

3.  Be  polite  to  pupils. 

4.  Do  not  repeat. 

a.  Questions. 

b.  Answers. 

5.  Govern  yourself. 

6.  Govern  your  own  pupils. 

7.  Prepare  for  recitation. 

8.  Let  all  your  acts  and  words  be  worthy  of  your  prof  essioa 

9.  Be 

a.  Original. 

b.  Enthusiastic. 

c.  Energetic. 

d.  Spirited. 

e.  Systematic. 
/.  Kind. 

g.  CheerfuL 

h.  Firm. 

i.  Self-possessed 

k.  Dignified. 

/.  Patient. 


CHAPTEE   V. 

LENGTH    OF   RECITATION. 

In  this  chapter  will  be  considered  the  length  of  reci- 
tation, the  assignment  and  preparation  of  lessons,  and 
criticism. 

A  recitation  should  not  continue  too  long  ;  nei- 
ther should  it  be  too  short.  If  it  is  too  long,  pupils 
grow  weary,  the  teacher  can  not  hold  their  attention, 
and  the  advantages  of  the  recitation  are  lost ;  if  the 
recitation  is  too  short,  the  subject  of  the  lesson  can  not 
be  properly  discussed  or  understood.  In  colleges,  reci- 
tations are  usually  about  an  hour  in  length  ;  in  high  and 
normal  schools,  from  thirty  to  forty  minutes ;  and  in 
graded  and  ungraded  schools  they  vary  from  ten  to 
thirty  minutes  in  length,  being  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
minutes  in  primary  rooms.  In  looking  over  a  pro- 
gramme recently,  I  observed  that  the  teacher  had  ar- 
ranged it  so  as  to  give  ten  minutes  daily  to  the  most 
advanced  grade  in  arithmetic,  ten  minutes  to  United 
States  history,  ten  minutes  to  the  class  in  physical  geog- 
raphy, and  ten  minutes  to  the  primary  class.  He  had 
arranged  for  a  certain  number  of  classes,  and  thought  he 
must  give  the  same  length  of  time  to  the  beginners  that 
he  gave  to  advanced  pupils,  and  that  every  recitation 


62      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

should  be  just  ten  minutes  long.  "  Now,"  said  he,  u  the 
people  can  not  complain,  for  I  give  as  much  time  to 
the  little  children  as  I  do  to  the  large  boys  and  girls." 
This  programme  was  published  in  the  newspapers  to 
show  the  particular  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  school- 
room. It  might  at  iirst  appear  to  be  just,  because  of 
the  equable  division  of  time.  But,  when  we  come 
to  examine  the  subject  carefully,  most  of  us  would 
agree  in  pronouncing  it  unjust.  And  why?  Let  us 
consider  it  in  this  light.  Little  children  can  not  con- 
trol their  attention  for.  a  great  length  of  time,  hence 
their  recitations  should  be  short,  lest  they  grow  weary 
and  learn  -  nothing.  With  larger  children,  who  have 
learned  to  keep  the  attention  longer  under  control  of 
the  will,  and  who  have  learned  how  to  study  a  new  sub- 
ject understandingly,  it  is  quite  different.  They  are 
better  prepared  for  recitation,  and  can  bear  extended 
criticism  and  the  questioning  and  cross-questioning  of 
the  teacher  and  classmates  better  than  little  children. 
For  this  reason  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  length  of  a 
recitation  for  small  children  should  never  be  more  than 
fifteen  minutes. 

In  the  higher  grades  of  ward-schools,  and  the  ad- 
vanced classes  of  ungraded  schools,  thirty  minutes  may 
be  profitably  given  to  recitations,  but  never  more.  In 
a  normal  or  a  high  school,  forty  minutes  should  be  the 
limit  of  length  of  recitation.  The  two  extremes  must  be 
avoided.  Time  enough  should  be  given  to  have  all  the 
points  in  a  lesson  brought  out  and  understood,  but  in 
no  case  should  the  recitation  be  continued  so  long  that 
pupils  lose  their  interest  in  the  subject. 

The  length  of  the  recitation  determined,  the  division 


LENGTH  OF  RECITATION.  63 

of  the  time  is  of  importance.  Since  every  lesson  is 
connected  with  the  one  preceding  it,  five  or  ten  min- 
utes should  be  taken  for  review. 

Suppose  the  recitation  to  be  one  in  general  history. 
History  is  a  continuous  stream  ;  it  is  not  simply  the  life 
of  an  individual,  but  of  humanity ;  and  we  look  upon 
all  humanity  as  passing  down  the  current  of  time.  We 
study  that  stream  from  its  source.  We  look  back  over 
thousands  of  years  into  the  early  ages,  or  we  glance 
forward  a  thousand  years  into  the  future,  and  we  dis- 
cover that  everything  is  related  to  something  else — 
every  event  to  some  other  event.  This  relationship  is 
not  only  true  in  history,  but  equally  true  of  the  facts  in 
the  sciences,  whether  of  the  natural  sciences  or  the  sci- 
ences of  political  and  social  economy.  The  time  set  apart 
for  review  will  give  opportunity  to  discuss  this.  Then 
allow  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  the  blackboard  work. 
Dividing  the  class  into  sections  corresponding  in  num- 
ber to  the  number  of  topics  in  the  lesson,  let  the  pupils 
pass  to  the  board  and  write  outlines  of  the  topics.  That 
done,  the  remainder  of  the  time  well  improved  will  be 
ample  for  oral  recitation  upon  these  topics,  and  for  the 
introduction  of  general  information  gathered  by  pupils 
from  outside  sources  which  they  think  may  have  some 
relation  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson.  This  relationship, 
if  existing,  may  be  shown ;  or,  if  their  judgment  is  in 
error,  the  error  may  be  made  to  appear,  and  their  men- 
tal faculties  receive  additional  culture  by  this. 

For  illustration,  one  teacher  required  all  the  pupils 
in  his  room  to  write  each  week  the  new  facts  learned 
during  the  preceding  week.  On  one  occasion  some  of 
the  pupils  brought  in  notes  upon  the  trouble  between 


64      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

China  and  France,  while  others  had  been  writing  about 
"  comet  dust,"  supposed  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the 
red  light  seen  evenings  and  mornings  in  the  sky;  still 
others  had  been  investigating  the  proceedings  of  u  the 
Court  of  Inquiry,"  and  others  had  followed  out  a  line  of 
railroad  between  two  cities  remote  from  each  other.  It 
is  possible  to  bring  to  bear  upon  a  historical  question 
a  great  many  facts,  and  the  relationship  of  a  railroad  to 
the  history  and  development  of  the  country  through 
which  it  passes  may  be  shown  to  have  a  bearing  upon 
the  lesson  of  the  day. 

The  teacher  who  is  no  broader  than  a  text-book  is 
narrow  indeed.  He  should  understand  a  subject  so 
thoroughly  that,  if  the  text-book  were  lost,  he  could 
teach  as  well  without  it  as  with  it.  In  the  German 
schools  the  teacher  must  be  able  to  stand  before  his 
classes  and  conduct  his  recitations  without  the  aid  of 
text-books,  and,  if  necessary,  throw  additional  light  on 
any  point  not  fully  presented  by  the  author.  Each  sub- 
ject should  be  taught  as  though  the  teacher  were  a 
specialist  in  that  subject. 

You  know  what  Emerson's  views  were  upon  success- 
ful teaching.  In  teaching,  as  in  everything  else,  the 
secret  of  success  is  inspiration  ;  and  the  inspired  teacher 
can  get  pupils  to  know  their  own  ability  to  do  some- 
thing.  In  a  primary-school  not  long  since,  I  saw  a 
good  illustration  of  this.  There  were  many  of  the 
children  so  small  that  they  could  not  put  on  their  over- 
coats. The  teacher  arranged  the  children  in  platoons, 
and  the  larger  children  assisted  the  smaller  ones.  Many 
primary  teachers  complain  of  having  to  dress  and  un- 
dress the  children.     This  teacher  had  found  a  way  out 


ASSIGNMENT  OF   LESSONS.  65 

of  the  difficulty.     She  directed  the  children,  and  they 
did  the  work. 

Assignment  of  Lessons. 

It  is  important  that  lessons  be  properly  assigned  and 
carefully  prepared.  Much  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  last  few  years  in  this  department  of  educational 
work,  and,  in  order  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  how 
things  have  been  done  in  some  old-time  schools,  I  will 
tell  the  story  of  an  ambitious  boy  who  studied  arithme- 
tic under  difficulties.  He  had  studied  reading  and 
spelling  for  some  time,  when  the  teacher,  in  a  gracious 
mood,  said  to  him  one  day,  "  George,  I  think  you  are 
big  enough  to  cipher."  George,  very  much  elated,  ran 
home  as  soon  as  school  was  out  and  told  his  father  what 
the  teacher  had  said.  His  father  was  delighted,  and 
promised  to  get  a  slate  and  an  arithmetic  for  him. 
This  promise  he  sacredly  kept,  and  the  next  morning 
George  was  the  happy  owner  of  a  slate  of  immense 
proportions,  and  a  copy  of  Smith's  arithmetic.  He 
felt  grand  indeed  as  he  entered  the  door  of  the  old  log 
school-house  at  the  end  of  the  lane.  He  showed  his 
new  property  to  the  teacher,  who  gave  him  his  first 
exercise  in  arithmetic.  The  teacher  said,  "  If  you  have 
one  apple  in  your  right  hand,  and  another  apple  in 
your  left  hand,  how  many  apples  have  you  in  both?" 
Could  such  an  exercise  ever  be  forgotten?  George 
solved  that  problem,  and,  happy  in  the  knowledge  that 
he  might  have  two  apples,  turned  over  a  leaf  or  two  in 
the  book  and  came  to  the  addition  table,  which  he  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  then  worked  on  as  fast  as  he 
could  through  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 


66      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

division.  No  lesson  was  ever  assigned  by  the  teacher, 
but  he  simply  worked  out  each  day  as  many  problems 
as  he  could.  Whenever  his  slate  was  full  he  showed  it 
to  the  teacher,  who  would  say,  "  Very  well  done,"  and, 
with  a  shy  glance  at  the  slate  covered  with  figures,  hand 
it  back  as  quickly  as  possible.  He  never  had  a  recita- 
tion. When  he  came  to  a  problem  too  difficult  for 
him,  he  took  it  to  the  teacher,  who  solved  it  (if  he 
could).  In  the  same  school,  in  the  reading  lessons,  each, 
oue  read  a  "  verse,"  as  it  was  called,  the  teacher  correct- 
ing the  mistakes  in  pronunciatiou.  Whenever  the 
teacher  did  assign  a  lesson  in  anything,  it  was  assigned 
by  pages,  never  by  topic. 

The  lesson  assigned  should  be  as  much  as  the  aver- 
age pupil  can  learn  well.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
give  too  much,  and  thus  discourage  pupils,  nor  too  lit- 
tle, but  enough  to  require  earnest  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  to  master  it. 

There  should  be  a  definite  time  for  taking  up  and 
studying  a  subject,  and  a  definite  time  for  laying  it 
aside.  At  no  time  and  on  no  account  should  a  teacher 
go  beyond  the  minute,  or  allow  a  pupil  to  do  so.  The 
order  of  exercises  should  be  so  distinctly  understood  by 
the  pupils  that  they  know  when  to  prepare  every  sub- 
ject as  well  as  when  to  recite  it.  To  enable  them  to 
meet  this  requirement,  the  programme  should  be  placed 
on  the  blackboard  where  all  can  see  it. 

To  recapitulate.  The  important  points  in  assigning 
a  lesson  are : 

First.     Assign  subjects  rather  than  pages. 

Secondly.  Assign  as  much  as  the  class  can  well  pre- 
pare. 


ASSIGNMENT   OF  LESSONS.  67 

Thirdly.  Let  the  lesson  be  a  little  too  short  rather 
than  too  long. 

Fourthly.  Instruct  the  pupil  as  to  how  you  wish  the 
lesson  prepared. 

The  last  is  a  very  important  point. 

Should  you  wish  to  teach  pupils  how  to  commit  to 
memory,  select  a  sentence  for  example  the  following: 
"  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  cause,  there  has  been 
the  greatest  diversity  of  opinion."  Read  it  slowly 
through — once,  twice,  three  times,  as  many  times  as  you 
think  necessary — and  close  the  book ;  then  try  to  repro- 
duce the  sentence  from  memory,  thinking  carefully 
about  it,  and  referring  to  the  book  if  necessary.  Ex- 
plain to  the  pupils,  in  words,  the  process,  showing  them, 
by  the  use  of  terms  simple  enough  for  their  comprehen- 
sion, that  we  commit  to  memory  by  repetition — that 
iteration  is  a  law  of  memory. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  more  pupils  fail  in  arith- 
metic from  the  fact  that  they  do  not  understand  the 
language  than  from  any  difficulty  there  may  be  in  the 
subject  itself.  The  teacher  must  be  sure  that  they  get 
the  idea,  and  then  illustrate  to  them  the  process  of  ex- 
pressing the  idea.  In  arithmetic  this  is  done  by  the 
solution  and  explanation  of  a  problem,  using  the  rule 
that  is  given  as  a  guide.  Having  read  the  problem 
carefully  through,  do  with  it  just  what  the  rule  directs, 
taking  one  step  at  a  time,  and  describing  it  f  ally  as  it- 
is  taken.  The  problems  and  rules  fall  under  certain 
general  principles,  the  use  of  which  children  should  be 
taught  to  understand,  and  not  required  to  commit  to 
memory.  The  rule  is  like  a  sign-post,  showing  which 
way  to  go;  but  definitions  should  be  committed  te 


68      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

memory  by  the  process  already  indicated,  when  the  lan- 
guage is  fully  understood.  In  every  definition  there  is 
what  may  be  called  the  "  key-word,"  without  which  the 
definition  loses  its  force,  and  this  very  word  is  often  the 
one  children  are  inclined  to  omit.  A  little  care  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  will  teach  the  children  to  look  for 
the  u  key-word,"'  and  the  learning  of  definitions  will 
not  be  very  difficult.  As  an  illustration,  take  the  defini- 
tion of  the  "  greatest  common  divisor  "  ;  omit  the  word 
"  greatest  M  in  it,  and  the  whole  definition  is  wrecked. 

In  teaching  children  how  to  study,  impress  upon 
their  minds  the  value  of  cheerful,  earnest  study.  In- 
sist upon  cheerful  faces,  and  set  the  example  yourself, 
even  though  behind  your  own  apparently  cheerful  face 
there  linger  traces  of  care,  of  anxiety,  of  illness.  The 
very  effort  to  appear  cheerful  drives  away  much  of  the 
hidden  pain,  and  the  children  should  not  be  permitted 
to  suffer  because  the  teacher  suffers.  If  she  is  irritable, 
they  become  so  ;  if  she  suffers,  they  suffer ;  f or  they  are 
sympathetic,  are  imitative,  and  any  disturbing  element 
hinders  progress  in  their  school- work.  Lively,  pleasant 
manners  in  the  teacher  are  indispensable  to  success. 

How  to  deal  with  those  who  are  unprepared  for 
recitation  is  a  most  perplexing  question.  What  should 
be  done  with  a  boy  who  will  not  prepare  the  lessons  ? 
It  should  be  so  managed  that  he  will  feel  the  loss.  He 
may  be  sent  home ;  it  is  his  loss.  But  there  may  be 
reasons  to  justify  his  failure  ;  there  may  be  sickness  at 
home,  or  misfortune  of  some  kind.  It  is  still  his  loss, 
for  a  class  can  not  be  kept  back  for  the  sake  of  one 
pupil.  The  only  thing  at  present  recommended  is 
that  he  be  held  responsible  for  the  discovery  of  the 


CRITICISM.  69 

lost  points  in  the  subject ;  lie  must  find  the  means  for 
his  own  relief.  A  wide-awake,  industrious  teacher  can 
make  such  use  of  the  time  spent  in  the  discussion  of  the 
general  information  topics,  and  their  relation  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  lesson,  as  to  compel  the  pupils  to  feel  that 
they  can  not  afford  to  lose  a  single  recitation  or  any 
part  of  it. 

Criticism 

is  not  simply  fault-finding,  pointing  out  errors;  it  is 
judging,  and  applies  to  the  separation  of  errors  from 
truths.  Wholesome  criticism  is  necessary,  but  commen- 
dation should  be  given  when  deserved.  Now  comes 
the  question,  "Who  should  criticise?"  I  think  that, 
in  advanced  classes  particularly,  the  pupils  should  be 
the  first  to  do  this.  If  their  criticisms  are  correct 
and  exhaust  the  subject,  the  teacher  has  little  to  do  be- 
yond presiding  and  supervising.  If  any  important 
points  have  been  omitted,  the  teacher  should  call  atten- 
tion to  them. 

How  to  criticise  is  more  important  than  who  should 
do  it.  ^The  object  of  criticism  must  be  kept  in  view, 
and  the  criticisms,  though  just  in  pointing  out  errors, 
may  be  so  made  as  to  defeat  the  object.  To  illustrate : 
Superintendents  sometimes  criticise  teachers.  This  is 
the  way  in  which  it  was  done  on  one  occasion :  The 
superintendent  was  a  man  of  very  determined  will.  He 
went  into  the  room  of  a  teacher  whom  he  did  not  ad- 
mire very  much,  although  he  found  her  doing  as  well 
as  she  could.  He  was  not  pleased  with  the  exercises, 
and  said  to  her,  "  That  is  wrong ;  do  it  this  way ;  do 
it  that  way,"  in  a  sharp,  angry  tone  of  voice.  This  con- 
fused her  so  that  she   began  to   weep.     His  manner 


70      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

shocked  the  pupils.  They  sympathized  with  their 
teacher.  The  criticism  was  unjust,  because  of  its  man- 
ner and  the  place  in  which  it  was  made.  He  should 
have  spoken  to  the  teacher  privately,  or  have  written 
memoranda  and  made  suggestions  for  her  guidance. 
He  should  have  spoken  in  the  proper  spirit  and  in  a 
kindly  manner.  Instead  of  bluntly  saying  "  That  is 
wrong,"  it  is  better  to  say,  "  I  think  that,  perhaps,  you 
would  tind  some  other  way  preferable  to  that,"  and  ex- 
plain that  other  way. 

There  is  much  in  knowing  how  to  present  a  subject, 
how  to  criticise  without  giving  offense.  One  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  the  times  softens  his  criticism  by 
giving  it  as  his  mere  opinion.  He  says  "  I  think  it  is 
this  way."  Every  one  who  hears  him  knows  that  he 
is  correct  in  the  statement  that  he  makes,  and  that  he 
knows  that  he  is  correct;  and  yet  he  speaks  as  if  he 
might  possibly  be  in  error,  to  avoid  giving  offense.  Re- 
member— criticise  so  as  not  to  offend. 

As  a  summary  of  thoughts  on  criticism  we  give : 

First.     Let  pupils  criticise. 

Secondly.  The  teacher  should  notice  omissions  in 
criticisms  made  by  pupils. 

Thirdly.  The  teacher  should  commend  pupils  for 
whatever  is  well  done.  This  stimulates  to  renewed  ex- 
ertions. 

Fourthly.  Criticisms  properly  made  are  remembered 
and  suggestions  acted  upon.  There  is  no  need  of  re- 
peating them. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ART   OF   QUESTIONING. 

1.  General  methods  of  questioning. 

2.  Personal  questioning. 

3.  Questioning  pupils. 

4.  Pupils  questioning  one  another. 

5.  Book  questioning. 

The  great  questioner  of  all  ages  was  Socrates,  the 
Grecian  philosopher.  Socrates,  as  a  philosopher,  sought 
not  so  much  to  establish  the  truth  of  a  statement  of 
philosophy  dogmatically,  as  to  involve  persons  by  apt 
questioning,  make  them  entrap  themselves,  and  thus 
lead  them  to  see  the  defects  of  their  definitions. 

For  instance,  if  a  definition  was  asserted  to  be  true, 
Socrates  questioned  in  his  own  mind  whether  the  as- 
sertion was  correct,  and  then,  in  conversation  with 
the  person  who  made  the  statement,  he  would  seek, 
by  a  series  of  questions,  to  involve  him  in  contradic- 
tion, perhaps  in  several  contradictions,  and  show,  by 
his  methods  of  questioning,  that  the  statement  was 
not  true,  but  false.  Hence  originated  that  method 
which  has  been  handed  down  to  us  from  ancient  times, 
and  which  we  call  the  Socratic  method.  I  would  recom- 
mend to  those  interested  in  the  art  of  questioning  the 


72      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

study  of  some  of  the  dialogues  in  which  Socrates  was 
the  questioner.  Not  that  those  examples  pertain  par- 
ticularly to  school  work,  but  to  show  the  skill  with 
which  he  put  his  questions.  At  the  present  time,  those 
persons  who  question  most  adroitly,  and  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  test  the  truthfulness  of  certain  propositions, 
are  found  in  the  legal  profession.  Lawyers,  especially 
those  noted  for  their  skill  in  the  cross-examination  of 
witnesses,  adopt  the  methods  of  Socrates.  Not  alone 
in  the  legal  profession,  however,  but  in  that  of  teach- 
ing, is  there  afforded  a  tine  field  for  the  display  of  ability 
in  the  art  of  questioning. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  pupil  must  learn 
for  himself ;  that  the  teacher  can  only  guide  him  in  cer- 
tain lines  of  thought.  The  art  of  questioning  correctly 
is  in  strict  harmony  with  this  proposition.  Pupils  are 
not  always  so  questioned  as  to  develop  their  mental 
faculties.  Hence,  for  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject, 
I  have  suggested  the  above  outline :  First,  the  general 
methods  of  questioning;  secondly,  personal  questioning 
— that  is,  questions  that  the  pupils  should  ask  them- 
selves, or  that  the  teacher  should  ask  himself ;  thirdly, 
questioning  pupils,  in  which  the  teacher  displays  what- 
ever ability  he  may  possess ;  fourthly,  pupils  question- 
ing either  the  teacher  or  one  another;  fifthly,  book 
questioning. 

GENERAL   QUESTIONING. 

Much  of  the  work  in  the  school-room  is  carried  on 
by  questions  and  answers.  The  methods  are  either  oral 
or  written,  or  a  combination  of  them.  With  beginners 
the  exerciszs  are  almost  exclusively  oral.     A  written 


ART  OF  QUESTIONING.  73 

question  should  have  but  one  meaning,  and  that  so 
clearly  stated  that  no  mistake  could  possibly  occur.  In 
preparing  questions  of  either  kind,  the  teacher  ought 
to  keep  the  objective  point  prominently  in  view.  By 
gradual  steps  the  pupil  is  conducted  to  a  certain  height, 
as  it  were,  whence  he  is  enabled  to  recall  the  successive 
efforts  put  forth  to  reach  it.  A  series  of  questions,  be- 
ginning with  what  a  pupil  knows,  and  so  fitted  together 
that  each  question  depends  upon  all  that  precedes  it  and 
builds  upon  that,  is  an  educational  appliance  which  any 
teacher  may  be  proud  to  invent,  but  which  can  not  be 
secured  without  close  and  careful  application  and  a  quick 
insight  into  the  varying  moods  of  the  human  mind. 
Whether  a  teacher  should  ask  oral  or  written  questions, 
depends  upon  circumstances. 

It  is  conceded  that  oral  questions  enable  a  teacher  to 
make  his  work  tell,  and  to  inspire  his  pupils  with  genu- 
ine enthusiasm.  There  is  an  electric  shock  from  the 
eye  and  an  inspiration  from  the  voice  which  stimulate 
pupils  to  do  their  best.  But  a  languid  and  sleepy  eye, 
a  weak,  undecided,  and  faltering  voice,  no  matter  how 
excellent  the  teacher's  other  qualifications  may  be,  will 
disorganize  any  school  and  spoil  the  pupils. 

Let  the  questions  be  so  put  that  they  will  bring  out, 
or  suggest,  ideas  to  the  pupils,  and  that  they  enable 
them  to  arrange  what  knowledge  they  possess  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner.  Random,  incoherent  questions  are  to 
be  avoided  while  trying  to  fix  an  idea  in  a  pupil's  mind. 
One  thought  well  grounded  is  of  more  value  than  a 
dozen  others  only  partially  understood. 


74      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 
PEESONAL    QUESTIONS. 

The  following  questions  are  suggestive  to  the  teacher 
preparing  for  a  recitation : 

1.  What  does  this  lesson  contain? 

2.  Is  it  adapted  to  the  pupils  studying  it  ? 

3.  How  much  time  will  be  required  by  the  pupils 
in  its  preparation  ? 

4.  Am  I  thoroughly  prepared  to  conduct  this  exer- 
cise? 

5.  How  is  it  related  to  what  precedes  it  ? 

6.  How  is  it  related  to  what  follows  it  ? 

7.  What  new  material  is  needed  with  which  to  illus- 
trate it  ? 

8.  Shall  the  children  furnish  the  illustrations,  or 
shall  I  furnish  them  ? 

9.  How  is  this  subject  related  to  other  subjects  in 
this  book  ? 

10.  How  shall  I  show  theae  relations  ? 

11.  What  are  the  natural  divisions  of  this  sub- 
ject? 

12.  Can  I  induce  the  pupils  to  find  out  the  divisions 
for  themselves? 

13.  Shall  I  use  the  analytic  or  the  synthetic  method, 
or  shall  I  use  both  methods  in  presenting  this  subject 
to  the  pupils  ? 

14.  What  difficulties  are  the  pupils  most  apt  to  have 
in  mastering  it  ? 

15.  What  faculties  of  the  mind  are  exercised  in 
learning  this  lesson  ? 

16.  Are  any  members  of  my  class  deficient  in  these 
faculties  ?     How  can  they  be  developed  ? 


ART  OF  QUESTIONING.  75 

17.  How  can  the  knowledge  gained  from  this  lesson 
be  utilized  in  after  life  ? 

18.  In  what  respects  are  my  methods  defective? 

19.  How  can  I  improve  ? 

20.  Is  my  language  such  that  my  pupils  can  under* 
stand  J 

21.  Do  I  speak  in  a  loud,  harsh,  grating  voice  ? 

22.  If  so,  what  effect  does  my  talking  have  upon  my 
pupils  I 

23.  Do  I  pronounce  correctly  all  the  words  that  I  use  ? 

PERSONAL    QUESTIONS    FOE   EACH   PUPIL. 

1.  Do  I  comply  with  all  just  requirements  in  school  ? 

2.  Do  I  give  entire  attention  to  my  work  ? 

3.  Am  I  always  honest  ? 

4.  Am  I  always  polite  \ 

5.  Do  I  connect  what  I  learn  each  day  with  what  I 
had  previously  known  1 

6.  Can  I  apply  the  knowledge  I  have  gained  to  the 
every- day  affairs  of  life  ? 

PUPILS    QUESTIONING. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  ask  questions — that 
is,  proper  questions.  When  Des  Cartes,  the  celebrated 
philosopher,  was  a  boy  and  went  to  school,  he  con- 
tinually tormented  his  teachers  with  questions,  and  was 
called  the  "  boy  philosopher."  He  has  since  then  tor- 
mented the  world  with  questions.  It  is  often  said  that 
little  children  will  ask  questions  that  the  wisest  can 
not  answer.  This  spirit  (or  faculty)  of  asking  questions 
needs  to  be  cultivated  in  the  right  direction,  otherwise 
it  becomes  offensive. 


76      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

In  intermediate  and  higher  grades,  when  a  pupil 
makes  a  statement  or  explains  a  problem,  if  he  be  forced 
to  defend  his  assertions  and  demonstrations  against  the 
adverse  criticisms  of  his  classmates,  he  is  taught  a  prac- 
tical lesson  in  cautiousness  which  will  save  him  many- 
mistakes  in  after  life,  and  create  in  him  that  habit  of 
mind  which  is  called  by  some  writers,  judicial.  Such 
criticism,  properly  conducted,  has  a  strong  tendency  to 
keep  this  point  clearly  before  the  mind  of  the  pupil, 
namely,  to  give  a  good  reason  for  what  he  believes. 
This  is  the  everlasting  "why"  which  presses  upon 
every  rational  being. 

If  you  wish  to  know  the  difficulties  pupils  have 
with  a  lesson  they  are  trying  to  master,  you  must  know 
how  the  subject  appears  to  them  ;  you  must  understand 
them ;  put  yourself  in  their  places ;  see  from  their 
standpoint.  Yery  well  did  that  novelist  express  it 
when  he  said  "  Put  yourself  in  his  place."  If  he  had 
never  written  anything  else  but  that  title  to  his  book, 
he  would  have  suggested  a  volume  in  that  one  short 
sentence.  Teachers  must  learn  to  see  a  subject  as  their 
pupils  see  it,  and  keep  in  mind  that  children  are  not 
empty  vessels  to  have  knowledge  poured  into  them. 

BOOK   QUESTIONS. 

Book  questions  are  good  for  that  class  of  teachers 
called  out  in  the  West  "  reciting-posts."  On  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  River  there  are  posts  to  which 
rafts  are  hitched  by  ropes,  and  then  pulled  slowly  to 
shore.  Some  teachers  use  the  "book  questions"  ex- 
clusively. These  questions  serve  but  as  the  ropes, 
and  children,  like  the  rafts,  are  held,  simply  drifting 


ART   OF   QUESTIONING.  ?f 

till  they  get  through  the  book  from  the  first  page  to 
the  last. 

The  time  has  come  when  the  best  teachers  are  those 
who  ask  four  or  five  questions  not  on  the  page  for 
every  question  there.  The  tendency  of  recent  years  is 
toward  cultivating  independence  of  thought  on  the  part 
of  pupils,  and  to  give  them  power  to  question  for 
themselves,  and  to  see  what  questions  should  be  asked 
and  answered. 

APPLICATION. 

Success  in  the  art  of  questioning  pupils  consists  in 
asking  such  questions  that  they  must  answer  freely  and 
independently  without  prompting  or  assisting.  The 
questions  should  in  no  way  suggest  the  answers.  I  know 
that  many  teachers  are  strongly  tempted  to  "  prompt " 
pupils  who  are  anxious  to  answer  the  questions  cor- 
rectly. But  it  is  far  better  for  the  pupil  that  he  be 
not  "  prompted,"  but  rely  entirely  upon  himself.  The 
art  of  questioning  a  pupil  properly  consists  in  asking 
such  questions  as  will  test  his  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  not  in  making  a  display  of  the  teacher's 
knowledge. 

Suppose  you  ask  a  pupil  to  tell  you  the  differences 
between  a  noun  and  a  pronoun,  and  he  tells  you  as 
many  of  the  differences  as  he  can  think  of.  You  then 
ask  another  pupil  to  tell  you  in  what  respects  they  are 
alike,  and  he  tells  you  all  the  agreements  he  can  think 
of  between  them.  Each  answers  in  his  own  language, 
and  in  complete  sentences.  Then,  after  all  have  an- 
swered, if  there  is  anything  additional  that  you  can 
think  of,  you  try  to  bring  it  out  by  asking  questions — 


78      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

such  questions  as  make  the  pupils  think  out  what  is  de- 
sired. 

Ask  questions  like  these :  "  In  what  respects  are 
decimal  and  common  fractions  alike '?  In  what  respects 
do  they  differ?"  Do  not  "  prompt  them."  Let  them 
tell  you  all  they  know  about  it.  When  one  gets  through 
reciting,  correct  his  language  or  make  suggestions  if 
necessary.  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  throw  up  their  hands 
as  soon  as  a  question  is  asked,  or  when  a  mistake  is  made. 
This  is  one  of  the  ways  of  " prompting"  practiced  in 
schools.  Let  the  pupils  wait,  as  has  been  suggested 
before,  till  the  person  reciting  gets  through  or  is  ex- 
cused. Then,  if  they  have  corrections  to  make,  let  them 
raise  their  hands.  It  is  said  that  in  some  of  the  Scotch 
schools,  when  a  question  is  asked,  all  the  pupils  of  the 
class  rush  toward  the  teacher  with  hands  up,  all  wanting 
to  speak  at  once. 

In  questioning  children,  the  skillful  teacher  asks 
questions  adapted  to  them,  comes  down  to  the  plane 
they  occupy,  gets  them  to  tell  what  they  know,  sets 
them  to  thinking,  and  leads  them  to  see  the  relation 
between  the  starting-point  and  that  which  he  wishes 
them  to  reach  in  the  circumference  of  their  knowledge. 
It  is  in  the  questioning  of  pupils  that  the  teacher  needs 
most  to  be  an  artist 

The  first  educational  work  I  ever  read  was  that 
grand  book  on  the  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching," 
by  David  Page.  It  is  a  book  that  every  teacher  should 
read.  It  was  that  book  which  first  opened  up  to  my 
mind  the  fact  that  there  was  anything  in  the  work  of 
education  above  the  mere  hearing  of  classes.  It  was 
the  inspiration  of  that  book  while  I  taught  my  second 


ART   OF   QUESTIONING.  79 

country  school  that  gave  an  impetus  to  my  whole  life. 
I  read  of  the  two  trees  —  the  straight  tree  and  the 
crooked  tree ;  and,  when  I  had  learned  how  difficult  it 
is  to  straighten  a.  crooked  tree,  I  felt  that,  as  a  teacher, 
I  had  a  higher,  more  important  work  to  do  than  simply 
to  ask  set  questions  and  listen  to  the  answers  given  by 
pupils  in  the  words  of  the  book.  When  I  read  that 
chapter  in  which  is  discussed  the  subject  of  asking 
questions,  and  in  which  he  tells  about  visiting  a  school 
and  hearing  a  recitation  in  mental  arithmetic,  I  looked 
about  among  my  acquaintances,  and  found  that  nearly 
all  the  teachers  I  knew  were  following  the  same  method 
that  was  there  portrayed  in  such  glowing  language. 

TOO   MUCH    HELP- — ANECDOTES. 

Visiting  a  school  not  long  since,  I  found  a  class  of 
children  that  were  reading  about  "a  child  P  They 
were  bright  but  noisy  children.  Having  heard  the 
subject  announced,  I  was  curious  to  know  just  what 
line  the  teacher  would  pursue,  since  it  did  not  exactly 
state  whether  the  child  was  "  a  boy  or  a  girl."  How- 
ever, the  teacher  struck  out  as  follows : 

"  How  many  think  the  child  was  a  girl  \  "  No  time 
was  given  for  an  answer.  "  How  many  think  it  was  a 
boy?"  No  time  for  answer.  "How  many  think  it 
might  be  either  a  boy  or  a  girl  ? "  No  time  for  answer. 
"  How  many  think  it  was  either  a  boy  or  a  girl  ? "  No 
answer,  but  a  few  raised  their  hands.  "  How  many  are 
positive  one  way  or  the  other?"  A  few  hands  raised, 
but  still  no  answer.  "  How  many  believe  it  might  have 
been  ? "  Then  a  pause,  but  the  hands  did  not  go  up. 
"  Now,  what  shall  we  say  about  it  ? "     There  were  no 


80      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

hands  raised,  but  they  were  getting  ready.  Then  John 
said,  "  I  don't  know."  That  was  the  first  answer.  "  Yes, 
that's  all  right.    We  will  now  go  on,"  said  the  teacher. 

At  another  time  a  friend  invited  me  to  visit  a  school 
in  the  country.  The  teacher  had  told  me  that  the  pu- 
pils in  his  school  understood  mental  arithmetic  better 
than  the  pupils  in  city  schools.  I  was  quite  willing  to 
go  and  ascertain  the  truthfulness  of  his  statement  for 
myself.  One  of  the  school  directors  of  that  district 
went  with  me.  We  had  been  in  the  room  but  a  few 
moments  before  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must 
be  the  same  school  that  David  Page  had  visited  forty 
years  before.  In  order  to  show  off  the  class,  three  girls 
were  called  out  to  recite  in  mental  arithmetic.  They 
were  using  a  book  which  is  used  in  many  schools.  One 
of  the  problems  given  was  this :  "  If  £  of  a  certain 
number  is  12,  what  is  that  number?"  They  were 
ready  for  recitation.  The  teacher  gave  the  question 
slowly  and  distinctly,  and  then  said,  "  Mary  will  an- 
swer." Mary  said,  "  Well,  if  J  of  a  certain  number  is 
12,  what  is  that  number?"  "Now,  Mary,  you  have 
first  to  find  £?"  "Yes."  "Well,  £  of  12  is  4?" 
"  Yes."  "  No,  no,  no,  no ;  now  watch  again.  If  £  of 
a  certain  number  is  12,  what  are  you  to  find  ? "  "  Well, 
I  am  to  find  the  number."  After  he  got  through,  he 
looked  around  with  a  triumphant  air.  "  Well,"  I  said 
to  him,  "  will  you  please  let  me  ask  the  girls  a  ques- 
tion ? "  "  Certainly."  I  said,  "  If  15  is  £  of  a  certain 
number,  what  is  that  number?"  He  answered  three 
questions  before  I  could  get  the  attention  of  the  girls 
to  one,  and  would  persist  in  helping  them.  I  asked  the 
teacher  to  let  the  girls  answer,  but  he  would  interrupt, 


ART   OF   QUESTIONING.  81 

and  commenced :  "  Now,  you  want  ^  of  15  ? "     "  Yes/' 
"Now  what  is  4  times  5  I " 

A   CONTRAST. 

I  visited  another  school,  the  teacher  of  which  is  one 
of  the  most  successful  in  the  art  of  questioning  I  ever 
knew.  When  I  entered  his  room  but  one  pupil  was 
out  of  order,  judging  by  the  most  fastidious  standard 
adopted  in  schools.  That  one  boy  was  not  sitting  just 
in  line.  The  teacher  was  conducting  a  language  exer- 
cise, and  asked  the  pupils  to  write  sentences  using  the 
words  meet  and  ineat.  Two  points  were  to  be  ob- 
served :  both  the  words  must  be  used  in  one  sentence, 
and  the  sentence  must  be  written  in  good  English.  One 
boy  wrote,  "  I  will  meet  my  father  after  I  buy  the 
meat."  The  class  agreed  that  the  sentence  fulfilled  the 
conditions.  The  decision  of  the  teacher  was  not  re- 
quired. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

TEACHING   READING. 

There  are  a  few  important  preliminaries  which  can 
not  be  omitted  without  detriment  to  the  pupil  who 
h  learning  how  to  read.  The  pupil  should  be  taught 
how  to  sit  and  how  to  stand  so  as  to  give  his  vocal 
organs  and  his  respiratory  organs  free,  easy,  and  natural 
action.  He  should  sit  or  stand  erect,  hold  his  chin 
down  near  his  throat,  breathe  through  his  nose,  keep 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  face  relaxed,  shoulders 
thrown  backward  and  slightly  downward,  stand  firmly 
on  one  or  both  of  his  feet,  hold  the  book  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  the  eyes,  so  that  both  eyes  see  the  words 
under  the  same  visual  angle.  He  must  also  be  taught 
how  to  inhale  and  how  to  exhale  air,  as  well  as  how  to 
economize  his  breath  in  reading  and  convert  it  into 
sound.  So  far  this  work  is  mechanical,  and  it  has 
reference  to  the  pupil  as  a  machine  capable  of  run- 
ning without  friction  or  danger  of  breakage,  but  with- 
out such  attention  liable  to  accidents  of  the  gravest 
character.  Just  as  the  human  voice  is  an  instrument 
of  the  most  wonderful  powers,  and  susceptible  of  the 
highest  degree  of  improvement  and  perfection,  so  is  it 
important  that  it,  with  the  breathing  apparatus,  should 
be  developed  in  a  rational  and  harmonious  manner. 


TEACHING  READING.  §3 

In  order  to  teach  reading  well,  the  teacher  must 
know  what  are  natural,  pure  tones  of  voice,  and  how  to 
develop  such  qualities  of  voice  in  the  pupils,  provided 
their  tones  are  defective  in  any  manner.  The  human 
voice,  in  one  sense,  is  an  instrument  possessing  the  most 
delicate  and  wonderful  properties  in  regard  to  quality, 
form,  pitch,  force,  rate,  and  stress.  A  teacher  whose 
ear  is  not  trained  to  detect  the  harsh  and  discordant 
tones  that  children  sometimes  employ,  and,  even  after 
detecting  them,  does  not  know  how  to  remedy  them, 
is  unfit  for  teaching  reading.  We  might  as  well  com- 
mit the  care  of  the  sick  to  that  pretended  physician 
whose  recommendation  to  practice  medicine  is  a  stolen 
diploma  from  some  printing-office,  and  who  does  not 
know  disease  from  health. 

An  experienced  reader  will  at  once  detect  any  im- 
purity in  the  quality  of  the  voice,  and  in  drilling  he 
knows  just  how  to  correct  it.  If  a  child  does  not  know 
the  multiplication-table,  his  progress  in  arithmetic  is 
slow  indeed,  and  if  he  is  allowed  to  continue  his  faulty 
methods  in  reading,  and  the  teacher  does  not  see  them, 
or  is  ignorant  of  the  treatment  the  case  requires,  the 
result  will  be  worse  than  zero. 

Reading  is  the  most  important,  as  well  as  the  most 
difficult,  branch  to  teach  in  the  entire  course  of  in- 
struction— the  most  important,  because  the  most  used 
and  the  most  necessary ;  and  the  most  difficult,  because 
the  least  understood  and  appreciated.  It  is  the  first 
study  of  the  child  at  school,  and  the  one  that  he  uses 
daily  ever  after.  It  is  very  properly  denominated  "the 
key  to  all  knowledge,"  hence  the  reason  it  should  be 
correctly  taught  in  all  grades,  but  more  particularly  in 


84      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

the  primary.  If  neglected  here,  the  probabilities  are 
that  the  pupil  will  never  become  a  good  reader. 

To  show  that  it  is  not  appreciated,  we  have  but  to 
refer  to  those  occupying  public  places  whose  vocal  deliv- 
ery is  anything  but  pleasing,  and  wThose  reading  is  simply 
outrageous.  Even  many  who  have  graduated  from  the 
best  institutions  in  the  land  have  entirely  neglected 
that  culture  which  would  enable  them  to  read  appro- 
priately a  section  from  a  statute,  an  extract  from  the 
Bible,  or  a  hymn  for  a  congregation.  These  persons 
are  careful  in  the  use  of  language,  written  and  spoken, 
frequently  refer  to  the  dictionary  for  correct  pronun- 
ciation, and  would  be  only  too  willing  to  acquire  a  full, 
round,  musical  tone  of  voice,  so  as  to  read  and  speak 
with  grace,  propriety,  and  ease.  But  too  late  in  life 
they  discover  that  one  essential  part  of  their  education 
has  been  sadly  neglected. 

It  is  not  in  public  only  that  good  reading  exerts 
an  influence ;  it  may  be  in  the  highest  degree  a  source 
of  pleasure  and  instruction  in  the  home  circle.  A 
good  book,  read  aloud  at  home,  not  only  disseminates 
useful  knowledge,  but  is  a  power  in  the  formation 
of  character.  How  important,  then,  that  our  school- 
children should  be  taught  correctly  in  this  branch, 
which,  above  all  others,  is  the  universal  branch  of  edu- 
cation ! 

We  will  endeavor  to  test  every  step  in  the  discussion 
of  the  subject  before  us — teaching  reading  by  the  edu- 
cational principles  which  have  been  already  presented. 
At  this  time  there  is  a  general  awakening  in  reference 
to  teaching  reading  to  all  grades  of  pupils.  A  promi- 
nent educator  has  made  this  definition:   "Keading  is 


TEACHING  READING.  85 

getting  and  giving  thought  by  means  of  written  or 
printed  words  arranged  in  sentences." 

An  excellent  teacher,  who  had  given  much  thought 
to  the  subject,  denned  it  as  follows :  "  Heading  is  the 
process  of  conveying  ideas  from  a  manuscript  or  book 
to  our  own  minds  or  to  the  minds  of  others." 

"Elocution,"  according  to  Mr.  Hamill,  "is  the 
science  of  expressing  thought  and  feeling  by  utterance 
and  action."  These  definitions  are  worthy  to  be  re- 
membered, compared,  analyzed.  Do  this,  and  then 
make  definitions  of  your  own  if  they  are  not  satisfac- 
tory. 

Since  a  large  majority  of  children  attend  school 
only  a  few  years  at  most,  there  is  an  urgent  necessity 
for  correct  instruction  early  in  life,  and  especially  so  in 
teaching  reading  to  primary  classes. 

In  all  instruction  the  teacher  should  keep  in  view  the 
fact  that  the  pupil  is  soon  to  help  himself,  and  in  im- 
parting instruction  in  reading — the  foundation-study — 
this  principle  should  not  for  a  moment  be  lost  sight 
of.  The  child  must  become  a  self-reliant  worker,  not 
a  mere  imitator.  With  this  in  view,  each  lesson  should 
exercise  the  perceptive  faculties,  tne  imagination,  the 
taste,  and  the  judgment. 

The  sum  of  all  reasons  why  reading  should  be 
correctly  taught  is  this  :  Upon  correct  reading — namely, 
getting  the  sense  out  of  what  is  printed  or  written — 
depends  every  other  acquisition. 

Reading  resolves  itself  into  certain  distinct  elements 
which  the  teacher  must  observe:  1.  Foremost  is  the 
object.  2.  The  processes.  3.  The  principles.  4.  Ap- 
plication of  the  principles.     5.  The  child  and  the  kind 


86      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

of  culture  that  his  nature  requires.  6.  The  literary 
selections  adapted  to  each  class. 

In  what  precedes,  the  object  of  reading  has  been 
pointed  out,  and  it  need  not  be  repeated. 

As  to  processes,  there  are  many,  and  they  go  by  dif- 
ferent names.  The  teacher  is  stumbling  over  them 
almost  every  day.  Perhaps  the  most  ancient  and  ven- 
erable method  is  that  known  as  the  u  A  B  C  method,'' 
once  in  vogue,  but  now  retired  from  active  service.  A 
few  strong  authorities  still  indorse  it.  They  advocate 
it  because  it  goes  away  back  to  tirst  principles — straight 
and  curved  lines.  It  has  age  in  its  favor,  but,  in  my 
opinion,  no  other  recommendation. 

Ideas  are  first  awakened  in  the  mind  by  impressions 
made  on  some  one  or  more  of  the  senses.  We  do 
not  know  how  these  impressions  are  transformed  into 
ideas,  but  the  transformation  does  occur,  nevertheless. 
The  second  step  is  this :  The  idea  in  the  mind  must  be 
expressed  through  the  medium  called  language.  Head- 
ing, therefore,  consists  in  giving  expression  to  the  ideas 
the  mind  has  formed. 

If  the  ideas  be  false  or  inadequate,  the  expression 
of  them  will  be  correspondingly  false. 

The  methods  yet  to  be  discussed  proceed  upon  the 
hypothesis  that  the  child  has  something  in  his  mind 
which  he  wants  to  express,  and  that  the  teacher  stands 
by  to  help  him  to  tell  it  properly.  The  second  method 
is  the  "word  method."  This  method  consists  in  taking 
some  familiar  object,  as  a  "hat,"  and  then  letting  the 
children  talk  about  it  to  the  teacher.  In  due  time  the 
teacher  calls  attention  to  the  spoken  word,  "  hat,"  and 
finally  to  the   printed  or   written  word,  "hat."     The 


TEACHING   READING.  87 

children  soon  learn  the  connection  between  the  spoken 
word  and  the  printed  or  written  word,  and  they  may 
also  know  how  to  spell  the  word  by  letter  and  also  by 
sound  as  well  as  how  to  write  it.  The  essential  point 
in  this  method  is  that  the  pupil  learns  to  know  a  word 
by  its  looks,  and  upon  the  same  principle  that  he  learns 
to  know  a  cat  from  a  cap.  It  is  even  claimed  that  a 
child  may  learn  two  or  three  hundred  words  in  this 
way,  before  he  knows  a  single  letter  of  the  alphabet. 
Heading  under  such  conditions  is  naming  the  words 
with  correct  expression. 

Observe,  first,  the  idea ;  secondly,  the  expression  of 
the  idea.  The  manner  of  expressing  the  idea  is  read- 
ing. It  is  impossible  for  a  pupil  to  express  his  ideas 
clearly  and  intelligibly  unless  he  first  feels  that  he  has 
something  to  say,  and  knows  how  to  say  it. 

As  will  be  observed,  the  unit  is  the  word,  and  there 
must  be  as  many  elements  or  different  words  to  learn 
by  sight,  if  the  vocabulary  be  an  exhaustive  one,  as 
there  are  words  in  the  reading-book  the  pupil  uses. 

Another  method  is  that  known  as  the  "sentence 
method.'-  The  sentence  is  the  unit.  The  pupil  learns 
a  sentence  by  its  looks.  A  string  of  words  to  him  is  a 
sentence,  and,  hearing  the  sentence  read,  he  attaches  a 
meaning  to  the  sentence  as  he  understands  it,  and  then  he 
tries  to  connect  the  spoken  with  the  written  or  printed 
sentence.  Repeating  the  sentence  with  different  modu- 
lations of  the  voice  will  enable  the  pupil  to  observe  and 
practice  those  turns  or  slides  of  the  voice  which  add  so 
much  to  the  beauty  of  vocal  delivery.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  pupils  may  learn  a  large  number  of  sentences  with- 
out even  finding  out   the   separate   words   composing 


88      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

them,  yet  it  hardly  appears  credible,  owing  to  the  well- 
known  disposition  of  children  to  tear  things  to  pieces. 
Of  course  the  advocates  of  this  method  claim  superior 
advantages  in  its  favor. 

If  we  consider  the  sentence  as  the  unit  of  thought, 
then,  naturally,  the  word  is  the  unit  of  language,  and 
the  letter  is  the  unit  of  words.  Whether  the  teacher 
employs  the  "  word  method"  or  the  u sentence  method," 
the  idea  precedes  the  word  or  the  sentence.  The  tiling 
itself  goes  before  the  sign.  Words  and  sentences  are 
visible  or  oral  expressions  for  ideas  already  in  the 
mind. 

Again,  the  clearer  the  concept  is  in  the  pupil's  mind, 
the  better  will  he  express  himself.  If  the  reading  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  add  any  new  thought  to  the 
thoughts  the  pupil  already  has,  then  his  work  is  value- 
less. To  add  to  the  intellectual  acquisitions  of  the 
mind  is  to  combine  simple  concepts  into  more  com- 
plex ones,  and  that  study  which  does  not  furnish  such 
material  as  is  readily  assimilated  by  combination  must 
be  classed  low  in  the  scale  of  mental  culture. 

Now,  the  starting-point  in  any  system  of  reading 
must  depend,  first,  upon  the  idea  in  the  mind,  and,  sec- 
ondly, upon  how  to  express  that  idea  in  such  tones 
of  voice  as  the  sense  indicates.  Reading  viewed  from 
this  elevated  standpoint  offers  the  very  best  field  for 
the  exercise  of  all  the  higher  faculties  of  the  mind, 
as  well  as  for  arousing  into  vigorous  activity  the  entire 
emotional  nature.  Indeed,  I  do  not  know  of  any  other 
branch  in  the  entire  curriculum  of  studies  that  appeals 
so  powerfully  to  every  faculty  of  the  human  soul,  nor 
do  I  know  of  any  other  subject  that  in  general  is  so 


TEACHING  READING.  89 

poorly  taught.  The  voice  is  something  that  needs  cult- 
ure, and,  if  impure  tones  have  been  acquired,  the  teacher 
ought  to  know  how  to  correct  them  at  once.  If  no  bad 
habits  of  voice  have  been  contracted,  the  voice  needs 
cultivation  to  give  it  smoothness,  volume,  intensity,  and 
compass.  Naturally,  the  child-voice  is  pure,  and  it  is  by 
gross  negligence  or  mismanagement  that  impure  quali- 
ties of  voice  are  fostered. 

An  experienced  musician  detects  instantly  the  slight- 
est discord — :even  the  country  singing-school  master  can 
tell  whether  all  his  pupils  sing  the  same  note;  but, 
positively,  there  are  thousands  of  "  school-keepers " 
who  are  unable  to  point  out  as  glaring  mistakes  in  read- 
ing as  a  failure  to  sing  the  scale  correctly  would  be  in 
vocal  music. 

PHONIC    METHOD. 

This  method  as  such  differs  from  the  others.  The 
names  of  the  letters  are  not  spoken,  the  sounds  only 
being  taught.  Take  the  word  "  hat."  A  is  simply 
sounded  as  a.  The  whole  word  may  be  analyzed  by 
giving  the  sound  of  each  letter.  The  teacher  should 
give  each  sound  first,  letting  the  child  repeat  it.  To 
get  the  sound  of  a,  let  the  child  speak  the  word  "at" 
after  the  teacher,  slowly,  and  then  begin  to  say  the 
word  and  leave  it  unfinished,  not  giving  the  sound  of 
"  t."  By  such  practice  as  this  phonic  analysis  is  easily 
learned,  and  the  relation  between  the  sound  and  the 
name  of  a  letter  is  soon  established. 

A  teacher  who  will  show  to  her  class  the  exact  po- 
sition and  movements  of  the  vocal  organs,  with  a  little 
special  explanation^ST^feidual  cases,  will  be  aston- 


90      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

ished  to  discover  that  very  little  time  will  be  required 
to  teach  a  class  to  give  all  the  sounds  accurately.  Those 
teachers  who  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  or  giving 
the  sounds  can,  by  studying  the  positions  of  the  vocal 
organs,  conquer  the  most  difficult  sounds  or  combination 
of  sounds.  To  illustrate :  take  the  long  sound  of  "  a," 
which  any  one  can  give,  and  notice  the  position  of  the 
lips,  tongue,  and  the  mouth.  From  that  sound  of  a  go 
at  once  to  the  short  sound  a,  watching  in  a  looking- 
glass,  if  necessary,  the  change  in  position  of  the  mouth, 
until  you  are  familiar  with  the  process,  and  can  explain 
in  words  those  elements  of  the  change  which  the  chil- 
dren can  not  see.  Some  positions  of  the  vocal  organs 
close  the  mouth,  so  thai  the  children  can  learn  to  make 
the  correct  sounds  only  by  imitation  and  practice. 

Whether  children  learn  to  read  at  first  by  the 
word,  sentence,  or  phonic  method,  they  soon  learn  the 
names  of  the  letters.  At  least  this  has  been  my  expe- 
rience, and  it  is  a  fruitless  waste  of  time  to  adopt  sub- 
terfuges in  order  to  avoid  teaching  the  names  of  the 
letters.  Only  a  few  persons  ever  had  any  trouble  in 
learning  the  names  of  the  letters,  and  most  of  them 
learned  their  letters  so  easily  that  they  have  forgotten 
when  and  how  they  did  learn  them. 

As  I  understand  the  method  of  Colonel  Parker, 
formerly  of  Quincy,  he  uses  no  book  at  first,  but,  with 
the  children  before  him,  takes  a  familiar  object  and 
talks  with  the  children  about  it  till  they  become  inter- 
ested in  it.  He  then  draws  a  picture  of  the  object  on 
the  board,  and  from  this  picture  the  children  draw  one 
on  their  slates.  The  name  of  the  object  is  written 
beneath  it  in  a  large,  bold  hand.     All  the  letters  are 


TEACHING  READING.  91 

written  unusually  large.  When  the  word  is  written 
underneath  the  picture,  the  children  have  made  the 
distinction  between  the  object  and  the  picture,  and  also 
between  the  spoken  word  and  the  written  word,  and, 
since  all  progress  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  de- 
pends upon  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  point  out  agree- 
ments and  differences,  it  is  readily  perceived  that  this 
method  has  many  excellent  features  to  commend  it. 
But  Mr.  Parker  has  the  children  learn  to  read  script 
first.  The  philosophy  for  this  I  can  not  discover.  The 
teacher  writes  the  reading-lessons  for  beginners  on  the 
board.  They  see  it  produced  by  her  own  hand,  and  it 
is  claimed  that  this  gives  it  a  freshness  and  a  personal 
inspiration  that  are  wanting  in  the  printed  form.  It 
is  also  a  fact  that  children  will  readily  change  from  the 
written  to  the  printed  form  without  loss  of  time.  The 
transition  either  way  is  easy. 

The  skillful  teacher  is  not  a  person  of  any  one 
method,  but  a  person  of  methods ;  able,  as  it  were,  to 
take  the  good  out  of  all,  and  combine  it  into  a  working 
system  of  her  own. 

There  is  no  valid  reason,  so  far  as  I  can  discover, 
why  the  child  from  the  first  should  not  spell  all  the 
words  in  his  lessons  by  letter  and  by  sound.  He  must 
learn  the  names  of  the  letters  as  well  as  the  sounds,  and 
it  will  require  only  a  few  days  for  the  child  of  ordinary 
intelligence  to  learn  both. 


While  this  method  is  particularly  adapted  to  acquir- 
ing a  knowledge  of  a  language  unknown  to  the  learner, 

it  is  so  suggestive  in  other  respects  that  I  refer  to  it  in 

7 


92    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION   PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

order  to  show  the  resources  of  a  teacher  who  stands  in 
the  foremost  rank  of  the  great  educators.  M.  Jacotot, 
a  Frenchman,  in  1818,  was  called  to  teach  pupils  who 
were  Hollanders.  He  did  not  know  one  word  of  the 
Dutch  language,  and  they  did  not  know  one  word  of 
the  French  language.  Here  was  a  problem.  I  met  a 
similar  case  in  a  northern  city  while  visiting  schools 
there  a  few  years  since.  A  young  lady  who  had  been 
reared  in  the  South  had  secured  a  position  in  a  part  of 
the  city  settled  by  Germans,  whose  children  could  not 
speak  a  word  of  English.  She  could  not  speak  a  word 
of  German,  and  so  she  sang  to  them  at  first. 

But  mark  what  M.  Jacotot  did.  He  took  as  the 
text-book  the  French  classic,  "  Telemaque."  It  was  in 
French,  but  with  an  interlinear  translation  in  Dutch  writ- 
ten under  the  French.  He  had  to  give  his  instruction 
to  the  children  through  an  interpreter — a  curious  way 
to  teach  a  language — beginning,  not  with  a  reading- 
book,  not  with  a  grammar,  but  with  one  of  the  very 
best  specimens  of  French  literature.  His  plan  was  to 
have  them  commit  every  word  to  memory.  There  it  is 
— the  first  word  "  Calypso."  He  had  them  repeat  it 
again  and  again  after  him  until  they  knew  it.  He  gave 
them  a  word  at  a  time  till  they  knew  the  whole  sentence. 
Then  he  questioned  them.  The  principle  upon  which  he 
worked  was  that  of  learning  one  thing  well,  and  compar- 
ing everything  else  with  it.  When  he  had  taken  up  all 
of  the  first  sentence — "  Calypso  could  not  console  herself 
for  the  departure  of  Ulysses" — he  asked  questions.  He 
had  t6ld  them  nothing  about  Calypso  or  Ulysses,  except 
just  what  they  could  gain  from  that  sentence.  He 
asked  them  such  questions  as  these :  "  Who  was  she  ? 


TEACHING   READING  93 

What  did  she  do  ? "  He  then  took  up  the  second  sen- 
tence, and  the  third  sentence,  and,  when  they  had 
learned  all  in  this  book,  he  turned  them  back  and  had 
them  repeat  it.  After  this  we  are  told  by  M.  Jacotot 
that  those  Dutch  children  used  better  French  than  he 
himself  or  any  of  the  professors  in  the  institution. 

Mr.  Joseph  Payne,  an  eminent  English  teacher,  took 
a  boy  eleven  years  old  to  teach  him  Greek.  He  wished 
to  try  experiments.  The  boy  had  been  hammering 
away  at  the  Greek  grammar.  Mr.  Payne  heard  of  Ja- 
cotot's  method,  and  said  he  would  try  it  with  this  boy. 
He  did  not  use  an  elementary  book,  but  began  with  the 
"  Iliad,"  following  the  Frenchman's  method,  and  when 
the  boy  had  learned  a  few  pages  in  this  way  he  could 
read  the  whole.  His  testimony  is  that  one  can  learn  a 
language  by  this  method  in  one  tenth  the  time  required 
by  any  other  process. 

With  the  word,  the  child  learns  to  read.  He  re- 
peats the  word,  giving  all  the  different  inflections. 
There  is  wonderful  power  in  the  human  voice ;  it  can 
express  every  emotion  by  means  of  the  different  inflec- 
tions, rising  or  falling  in  pitch,  and  changing  the  tones, 
uttering  words  rapidly  or  slowly,  with  more  or  less 
force.  This  power  can  be  shown  by  taking  the  letter 
"  O  "  and  giving  in  its  utterance  the  various  inflections 
of  which  the  voice  is  capable.  After  the  children  get 
a  few  words,  their  vocabulary  is  rapidly  enlarged. 

CAUTIONS. 

Primary  reading  is  the  important  work.  Everything 
depends  upon  a  right  start.  There  is  too  great  a  dispo- 
sition on  the   part  of   inexperienced  teachers  to  give 


94      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

long  lessons  at  first,  especially  to  small  children.  There 
is  sometimes  danger  of  giving  to  larger  children  lessons 
which  are  too  simple.  Here  is  an  illustration  of  this : 
A  gentleman  teacher  was  exceedingly  partial  to  some  of 
Whittier's  poems,  and  he  had  his  class  read  "Maud 
Muller"  day  after  day,  week  after  week,  and  almost 
month  after  month.  They  would  read  it  over  and  over 
again  every  day,  and  finally  he  asked  if  any  one  had  a 
question  to  propound.  One  boy,  who  had  been  very 
patient,  arose  and  said  :  "  Professor,  we  have  been  talk- 
ing about  this  fellow  'Maud  Muller'  for  a  long  time. 
Now,  I  want  to  know  who  he  was,  where  he  came  from, 
and  what  he  was  about." 

There  must  be  variety.  A  one-string  violin  makes 
poor  music.  The  first  words  given  to  children  should 
be  short  ones,  and  when  a  word  is  once  learned  well, 
there  is  no  need  of  constantly  repeating  it. 

For  children  of  the  first  or  lowest  grade,  three  new 
words  are  enough  to  introduce  at  one  lesson. 

It  is  asserted  by  a  good  authority  that,  out  of  every 
ten  hours  devoted  to  reading  in  school,  nine  hours  must 
be  given  by  the  pupil  in  trying  to  find  out  the  author's 
meaning. 

To  read  well,  thoughtful  study  of  the  words,  their 
meaning  in  combination  or  when  standing  alone,  is  an 
essential  condition. 

To  enlist  the  pupil's  attention,  the  lessons  should  be 
simple  in  character,  interesting  in  matter,  suited  to  the 
understanding,  and  elevating  in  their  influence;  and 
in  every  reader  there  should  be  some  beautiful  gems 
of  literature,  and  these  the  children  should  commit  to 
memory. 


TEACHING  READING.  95 

ADVANCED   READING. 

Instruction  in  the  more  advanced  classes  is  some- 
what different  from  that  of  the  primary  grades. 

Not  only  must  the  pupil  be  able  to  pronounce  the 
words  correctly,  but  there  is  a  wider  scope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  all  his  mental  powers. 

In  reading  a  paragraph,  he  must  decide  upon  a  com- 
bination of  elements,  and  how  each  element  is  to  be 
represented.  The  prominent  ones  are  to  be  brought 
out  in  strong  contrast  with  the  weaker  ones,  the  group- 
ing preserved  so  as  to  bring  into  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
the  harmonious  blending  which  pleases  the  ear  and  sat- 
isfies the  taste. 

To  read  thus  intelligently  implies  a  critical  and  cul- 
tivated taste,  and  an  ear  and  eye  capable  of  appreciating 
the  beautiful  in  thought  and  expression. 

And  while  the  voice  may  not  be  trained  well 
enough  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect  upon  the  listener, 
yet  the  taste  sets  a  higher  standard  than  is  reached,  and 
the  result  is  constant  improvement  in  the  delivery. 
The  aim  then  of  higher  grade  work  in  reading  is  to 
cultivate  properly  this  critical  faculty,  and  to  set  before 
the  pupils  each  day  higher  conceptions  of  expression  in 
utterance  and  action. 

Since  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between  the 
mind  and  the  body,  between  thought  and  the  thinker, 
between  the  thing  as  it  is  thought  and  the  expression 
of  the  thought,  the  teacher  never  once  loses  sight  of  the 
fact  that  the  body  is  the  channel  of  communication 
between  the  two. 

While  the  mind  forms  its  conceptions,  the  body,  as 


96      PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED 

the  instrument  of  the  mind,  expresses  to  others  the  ideas 
thus  formed.  To  give  expression  in  a  perfectly  natural 
manner  is  what  is  meant  "  by  studying  nature." 

As  there  is  a  language  of  the  body,  unwritten  in  the 
books,  but  known  and  understood  by  all  men,  the  child 
should  be  trained  that  every  movement  of  his  body 
is  the  expression  of  a  thought,  and  furthermore,  that 
his  work  as  a  learner  consists  in  perfecting  himself  so 
as  to  bring  his  bodily  organism  into  complete  subjection 
to  his  will.  By  utterance  and  action  every  style  of 
thought — from  the  most  tranquil  to  the  most  impas- 
sioned—can be  expressed.  When  the  pupil  sits  or  stands 
erect ;  breathes  naturally  and  can  economize  his  breath  ; 
holds  his  book  in  the  proper  position  ;  speaks  the  words 
with  accuracy  and  precision,  and  in  a  pleasant  and  pure 
tone  of  voice,  and  is  easily  understood,  his  reading  is 
such  as  any  ordinary  teacher  may  well  be  proud  of; 
but  to  secure  depth,  volume,  and  elasticity  of  voice, 
daily  practice  upon  the  elementary  sounds  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

In  summarizing  the  results  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  pupil  in  reading,  the  following  points  are  to  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind : 

1.  To  pronounce  distinctly  all  the  words  so  as  to  he 
heard. 

2.  To  emphasize  all  the  words  so  as  to  be  understood. 

3.  To  express  the  thought  so  as  to  be  felt. 

4.  To  attain  clearness  in  expressing  thought — sepa- 
rate and  contrast  ideas. 


TEACHING  READING.  97 

Teaching  Eeading. 
I.  Object. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  To  gain  knowledge  and  pleasure. 

3.  To  give  knowledge  and  pleasure. 

II.  Process. 

1.  Talking. 

2.  Seeing. 

3.  Hearing. 

III.  Methods. 

1.  Alphabet. 

2.  Word. 

3.  Sentence. 

4.  Phonic. 

5.  Parker's. 

6.  Jacotot's. 

IV.  Elements. 

1.  The  intellectual  element. 

2.  The  mental  element. 

3.  Vocal. 

4.  Physical. 

V.  Talking. 

1.  Object. 

2.  Idea. 

3.  Words. 

4.  Association  and  reproduction* 

VI.  Seeing  and  Hearing. 

1.  Object. 

2.  Idea  and  word. 

3.  Picture. 

4.  Expression. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TEACHING   COMPOSITION   AND   LANGUAGE. 

Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing  ideas  and 
thoughts  in  words.  It  is  of  two  kinds  :  oral  composi- 
tion and  written  composition.  Written  composition  is 
divided  into  two  kinds,  also :  ordinary  school  composi- 
tion and  higher  composition.  Of  the  latter  there  are 
many  forms,  the  most  common  of  which  is  that  written 
for  the  press.  This  is  seen  in  the  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, and  presents  every  variety  of  subject  of  general, 
local,  or  temporary  interest  to  the  public.  There  are, 
besides  this,  historical,  biographical,  scientific,  literary, 
and  all  the  various  forms  which  appear  in  books,  and 
are  of  more  general  and  permanent  interest.  I  mention 
these  departments  because  the  work  of  the  lower  pre- 
pares for  the  higher. 

I  shall  now  speak  particularly  of  that  form  of  com- 
position which  pertains  to  common-school  work. 

Under  the  mental  process,  we  have,  first,  to  acquire 
knowledge  ;  secondly,  to  elaborate  or  classify  that  knowl- 
edge ;  and,  thirdly,  to  express  it  in  language,  either 
spoken  or  written.  This  is  oral  or  spoken  composition 
for  which  the  children  have  made  some  preparation  by 
talking,  hearing,  seeing,  tasting,  feeling,  and  smelling. 
They  have  made  some  acquisitions  that  we  will  call 


TEACHING  COMPOSITION  AND   LANGUAGE.  99 

their  own.  In  the  school  work  the  first  object  is  to  get 
the  children  to  express  their  thoughts  in  language 
which  is  intelligible  to  other  persons. 

In  the  beginning  the  child  learns  how  to  talk  from 
imitation,  and  from  imitation  alone.  Observe  the  lit- 
tle child  in  his  efforts  to  talk;  he  watches  the  move- 
ments of  the  lips,  and  imitates  the  sounds  he  hears.  A 
person  in  learning  a  foreign  language  gets  the  peculiari- 
ties of  pronunciation  by  imitating  the  teacher's  voice. 
No  book  description  can  teach  an  American  to  pro- 
nounce the  French  language  correctly.  It  is  learned 
from  the  voice  only.  It  has  been  said  that  few  per- 
sons over  thirteen  can  ever  learn  foreign  languages  so 
as  to  speak  them  without  what  is  called  an  accent,  so 
difficult  is  it  to  get  the  vocal  organs  into  proper  position 
to  make  new  sounds  after  they  have  been  employed  for 
years  in  making  certain  familiar  sounds. 

It  has  even  been  asserted  by  some  that  a  child  learns 
to  use  a  language  almost  exclusively  by  imitation,  and 
should  never  study  a  grammar  for  that  purpose ;  but 
that  he  should  use  it  afterward  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining whether  a  sentence  is  correctly  or  incorrectly 
expressed,  and  that  this  is  the  function  of  grammar. 
This  opinion  is  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 

After  the  child  has  acquired  the  ability  to  talk,  to 
express  his  thoughts  in  spoken  words,  comes  this  new  ac- 
quisition, that  of  writing.  It  puts  a  new  and  greater 
power  into  a  person's  hands  when  he  can,  wTith  the 
pen,  write  down  his  thoughts  and  send  those  written 
thoughts  to  others.  It  puts  the  thoughts  into  perma- 
nent form,  preserving  them  for  future  or  for  distant 
use.     In  ordinary  conversation  we  meet  face  to  face  to 


100    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

talk.  Conversation  is  oral  composition  ;  but,  having  the 
ability  to  write,  we  can  talk  with  persons  on  any  other 
part  of  the  globe. 

Hence,  one  of  the  greatest  discoveries  made  by  man 
was  that  of  the  alphabet,  giving  him  an  easy  means  of 
communicating  his  thoughts  to  others.  He  puts  letters 
together  to  form  words,  signs  of  ideas ;  and  then  these 
words  together  to  form  sentences,  expressions  of 
thought. 

There  are  many  methods  of  teaching  the  art  of  com- 
position; attention  is  invited  to  a  few  of  them. 

Suppose  we  have  a  class  of  children,  say  six  years 
of  age,  such  as  are  found  in  the  first  or  lowest  grade. 
The  teacher  takes  up  some  object,  it  may  be  a  book ;  the 
children  look  at  it ;  they  talk  about  it.  The  teacher 
asks  a  few  simple  questions.  It  is  not  meant  that  a 
teacher  is,  or  should  be,  an  interrogation-point  only, 
doing  nothing  but  asking  questions  ;  but  the  teacher 
who  can  question  skillfully,  who  knows  how  to  draw 
out  wThat  there  is  in  the  mind  of  the  child — a  teacher 
who  can  use  this,  the  Socratic,  method  properly— is  al- 
ways successful  in  his  or  her  work. 

As  the  children  talk  about  the  book,  they  become 
interested  in  it,  and  the  teacher  can  wTrite  before  the 
class  on  the  board  the  word  "book."  Then  ask  the 
question,  "  Who  can  tell  me  something  about  the 
book  ?  "  Many  hands  go  up,  and  some  one,  a  little 
boy  or  a  little  girl,  says,  "It  is  a  brown  book,"  or 
u  It  is  a  large  book."  Let  the  children  express  them- 
selves in  short  words,  the  teacher  being  careful  to 
use  words  that  the  children  understand.  The  teacher 
should  then  write  the  sentence  on  the  board.     If  it  is 


TEACHING  COMPOSITION   AND  LANGUAGE.  101 

not  expressed  very  well,  have  some  one  express  it  bet- 
ter, giving  sentence  number  two.  The  question  "  Who 
will  tell  me  something  else  about  the  book  ? "  will  bring 
up  the  little  hands  again,  and  some  one  is  called  upon 
to  answer,  and  sentence  number  three  is  placed  upon 
the  board.  Keeping  on  in  this  way,  sentence  follows 
sentence  until  there  is  a  reading  lesson.  This  method 
of  teaching  oral  composition  may  be  continued  for  a 
year  or  two,  using  familiar  subjects. 

After  the  children  are  sufficiently  advanced,  they 
may  be  questioned  in  regard  to  the  object,  and  then, 
when  they  are  able  to  do  so,  they  should  write  on  their 
slates,  on  the  blackboard,  or  on  paper,  what  they  know 
of  the  subject  presented,  after  proper  directions  have 
been  given. 

Another  method  sometimes  pursued  with  fourth- 
and  fifth  grade  pupils  may  be  of  interest.  The  teach- 
er selects  a  list  of  words,  say  ten,  and  pronounces  them 
to  the  school  without  telling  the  pupils  how  to  spell 
them.  They  write  the  words  as  they  think  they  should 
be  spelled,  and  then  look  in  their  dictionaries  for  these 
words.  This  is  a  more  advanced  form  of  composition, 
and  the  children  bring  in  the  next  day,  or  within  the 
next  two  or  three  days,  the  ten  words  correctly  spellel 
and  defined.  They  don't  know  why  these  words  were 
given,  but  on  the  second  day  the  ten  words  are  pro- 
nounced to  the  class  as  a  spelling-lesson,  and  are  spelled 
correctly.  Then  the  teacher  reads  a  short  story  in  which 
these  very  words  are  used,  and  from  which  they  had  been 
selected  without  the  name  of  the  story  being  told  to  the 
children.  The  next  day  they  reproduce  the  story  as  near- 
ly as  they  can,  putting  into  the  sentences  the  ten  words. 


102    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Another  very  good  method  of  teaching  composition 
writing  in  the  intermediate  grades  is  the  selection  of 
pictures  by  the  teacher.  The  pictures  are  fastened  on 
the  wall  of  the  school-room,  and  the  pupils  are  asked  to 
write  descriptions  of  what  they  see  in  the  pictures. 
The  work  is  tested  by  comparing  the  composition  witli 
the  picture. 

Frequently  very  abstract  as  well  as  very  dull  sub- 
jects are  assigned  as  suitable  topics  for  school  essays. 
A  child  can  not  call  up  much  original  knowledge  "  from 
the  depths  of  his  inner  consciousness."  The  waters  in 
that  pool  are  usually  turbid.  The  skillful  teacher  will 
avoid  such  topics. 

Let  the  children  write  about  things  that  they  know, 
or  something  that  they  have  done.  Their  own  experi- 
ence and  observation  should  be  woven  into  composi- 
tions. They  may  describe  bits  of  travel,  a  visit,  the 
school-room,  and  the  articles  it  contains ;  a  flower,  an 
apple,  etc.  But  the  teacher  should  note  how  carefully 
and  accurately  the  descriptions  agree  with  the  objects 
represented.  For  a  child  to  describe  well,  he  must  ob- 
serve carefully.  A  class  of  children  had  written  very 
learnedly  on  u  the  cat " ;  but,  when  asked  how  many 
toes  the  cat  has  on  its  forefoot,  silence  reigned  in  that 
room.  Yet  these  children  had  written  on  "  hope,"  "  re- 
wards," "punishments,"  and  "the  elephant,"  prior  to 
the  exciting  theme  of  "  cat." 

It  is  not  intended  to  go  into  any  elaborate  account 
of  methods  of  correcting  compositions.  Enough  to  say 
that,  as  penmanship  is  systematically  taught  in  all  grades 
of  schools,  there  is  no  valid  excuse  for  poor  penmanship 
now  unless   some   physical   disability  exists.      Minute 


TEACHING   COMPOSITION  AND   LANGUAGE.  103 

directions  for  marking  all  errors  are  given  in  most 
treatises  on  compositions,  so  that  I  have  but  few  sug- 
gestions to  offer. 

1.  The  pupil  should  write  a  bold,  legible  hand. 

2.  He  should  display  taste  and  judgment  in  the 
matter  and  form  of  his  composition  ;  that  is,  the  manu- 
script should  look  as  neat  as  possible  in  its  general  ap- 
pearance, and  impress  the  eye  favorably. 

3.  Spacing,  capitals,  spelling,  and  punctuation  must 
be  rigorously  attended  to. 

4.  Small  words  are  apt  to  be  preferable  to  large  ones. 

5.  Short,  pointed  sentences  are  better  than  long  ones. 

6.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  paper. 

7.  In  all  cases  of  doubt,  the  pupil,  if  somewhat 
advanced,  should  consult  the  dictionary  and  English 
grammar. 

The  following  expresses  my  views  so  fully  that  it  is 
inserted  at  length : 

"  Not  enough  composition  is  taught  in  our  common 
schools.  To  write  a  good  composition  requires  time 
and  hard  work.  Schiller,  when  he  composed  his  poems, 
walked  up  and  down  the  room  repeating  the  verses  to 
himself  to  see  if  they  struck  his  ear  well.  The  sub- 
ject must  not  be  too  general ;  the  subject  must  not  be 
too  difficult.  The  teacher  should  lend  his  assistance 
and  instruct  his  pupils  in  the  construction  of  correct 
sentences."  # 

"It  is  true  that  there  is  not  enough  composition 
taught  in  the  common  schools ;  it  is  equally  true  that 
there  is  not  enough  taught  in  the  high-schools  ;  in  fact, 
there  is  very  little  teaching  of  the  subject  done  any- 
where. The  work  is  required  of  the  pupil,  usually,  and 
he  is  to  '  make  bricks  without  straw ' ;  draw  thoughts 

*  Professor  Kemp. 


104  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

from  a  brain  that  has  no  thought  on  the  subject ;  ex- 
press these  thoughts  in  good  language,  when  he  has  no 
command  of  language  ;  arrange  his  topics  in  logical 
order,  when  he  has  no  idea  of  either  logic  or  order ;  and 
punctuate  properly,  when  he  has  no  knowledge  of 
the  utility  of  any  mark  save  the  interrogation-point. 
Composition,  as  it  is  usually  taught  (?)  in  the  schools, 
is  the  bugbear  of  not  only  the  pupil  but  the  teacher. 
Instead  of  being  daily  work,  like  other  studies,  oc- 
cupying the  time  which  its  great  importance  de- 
mands, it  is  a  weekly  work,  usually,  occupying  perhaps 
an  hour ;  instead  of  the  subject  being  one  that  is  within 
range  of  the  grasp  of  the  child's  comprehension,  it  is 
one  so  far  above  his  comprehension  that  he  gropes  in 
the  dark  hunting  for  some  thoughts  until  the  hour  for 
writing  is  nearly  closed,  when  he  by  accident  stumbles 
upon  something  he  thinks  must  be  an  idea,  and,  hastily 
grasping  it,  jots  it  down ;  instead  of  building  up  the 
work,  from  the  single  word  to  the  simple  sentence, 
from  the  simple  sentence  to  the  compound  sentence, 
from  the  compound  to  the  complex  sentence,  from  the 
sentence  to  the  paragraph,  from  the  paragraph  to  the 
essay,  they  build  downward,  or  try  to,  beginning  with 
the  essay,  and,  by  the  time  the  teacher  has  finished  the 
corrections,  ending  with  the  word  ;  instead  of  develop- 
ing ideas  of  form,  color,  size,  place,  utility,  difference, 
and  agreement  in  their  pupils,  before  they  require  them 
to  write  about  objects  that  possess  these  qualities,  these 
ideas  are  presupposed  by  the  teacher  to  be  already  pos- 
sessed by  the  pupil,  with  the  power  of  arranging  them 
in  logical  order.  Imagination,  observation,  and  concen- 
tration of  thought  are  mental  powers  easily  developed  in 
the  average  child,  and  are  inseparable  requisites  of  good 
composition  ;  yet  it  is  true  that,  while  they  are  easily 
developed  in  the  average  child,  it  is  equally  true  that 
these  powers  exist  as  possibilities  only  in  the  young 
mind,  awaiting  either  development  or  destruction.  The 
average  teacher  requires  a  boy  whose  power  of  imagina- 


TEACHING   COMPOSITION  AND   LANGUAGE.  105 

tion  has  been  all  crushed  out  of  him  by  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  his  life  to  write  a  composition  on  a 
subject  which  requires  the  highest  order  of  imagina- 
tion ;  and  thus  with  observation.  Concentration  of 
thought  is  required  in  all  composition,  yet  pupils  are 
required  to  write  lengthy  essays  when  this  power  has 
been  so  little  cultivated  that  it  might  well  be  indicated 
by  a  term  denoting  less  than  zero.  It  is  time  that  com- 
position received  the  amount  of  consideration  in  all 
schools  which  its  importance  demands,  and  it  is  also 
time  to  revolutionize  the  work  of  teaching  the  subject, 
beginning  at  the  bottom  and  teaching  upward,  instead 
of  at  the  top  and  teaching  downward."  * 

If  the  child  is  properly  instructed,  there  is  no  reason 
why  he  should  not  write  his  thoughts  with  the  same 
ease  as  he  speaks  them,  and  with  more  accuracy.  This 
is  possible  only  when  writing  his  thoughts  is  a  part  of 
his  daily  school  work.  Constant  and  persistent  practice 
of  the  right  sort  will  enable  the  child  to  use  the  language 
as  an  instrument  of  thought.  The  habit  of  requiring 
pupils  to  copy  their  reading-lessons  on  their  slates  may 
become  a  positive  hindrance  rather  than  a  help  or  aid  to 
composition  work.  Pupils  required  to  do  a  great  deal 
of  copying  grow  careless  and  work  mechanically,  and, 
in  time,  lose  interest  and  put  no  thought-work  into  what 
they  are  doing.  This  may  be  tested  in  the  following 
easy  manner :  Tell  the  pupils  to  close  their  readers,  and 
then  let  the  teacher  read — only  a  few  words  at  once — 
and  ask  the  pupils  to  write  what  the  teacher  reads ;  to 
capitalize  and  punctuate  the  extract  read.  When  the 
work  is  completed,  ask  the  pupils  to  compare  their  work 
with  the  paragraph  or  paragraphs  read  by  the  teacher, 

*  Gertrude  T.  Johnson. 


106    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

and  which  they  copied.  Note  the  variations  from  the 
text. 

If  it  is  a  "  new  piece,"  the  teacher  should  read  it 
over  once,  slowly  and  distinctly  ;  and  then  read  it  again 
a  little  at  a  time,  for  the  pupils  to  copy.  Compare 
results  again. 

The  following  directions  should  be  kept  in  mind  : 

1.  Let  the  little  children  write  about  things  they 
have  seen,  things  they  have  heard,  or  things  they  have 
done. 

2.  Let  older  pupils  read  over  a  lesson,  close  the 
book,  and  then  reproduce  it ;  lastly,  compare  their  work 
with  the  original. 

3.  At  dictation,  require  advanced  pupils  to  write 
sentences  of  certain  prescribed  forms. 

Illustration :  To  write  a  sentence  having  a  subject, 
transitive  verb,  and  an  object,  each  of  these  elements 
modified  by  a  transitive  clause. 

4.  Give  particular  attention  to  the  expresrion  of  the 
thought  as  well  as  to  the  thought  itself. 

5.  Encourage  the  more  advanced  pupils  to  enlarge 
their  vocabulary  of  words,  and  to  discriminate  sharply 
in  the  use  of  words. 

6.  In  original  composition :  seek  (1)  a  definite  idea 
of  what  is  to  be  said ;  (2)  the  choice  of  the  right  words 
to  express  it. 

7.  Aim  at  clearness  in  the  expression  of  thought. 

8.  To  acquire  a  graceful  style,  study  the  best  writers. 

Grammar. 

Already  the  composition  work  involves  a  great  deal 
of  practical  grammar.     Grammar  as  an  independent 


TEACHING  COMPOSITION  AND  LANGUAGE.  107 

branch  of  study  naturally  divides  itself  into  three  de- 
partments, namely,  the  use  of  words,  the  relation  of 
words,  and  the  philosophy  of  words ;  and,  if,  instead  of 
"  words,"  we  substitute  "  grammar  "  or  %i  language,"  the 
analogy  holds  true  also.  Words  are  shadows  of  things, 
and  all  language  instruction  at  first  is  to  teach  beginners 
how  to  use  these  shadows  for  the  things  themselves. 
Hence,  practical  grammar  is  that  branch  of  the  subject 
which  enables  the  learner  to  use  words  correctly,  and 
to  judge  somewhat  of  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
words  employed. 

As  he  advances  in  his  school  work,  the  parent  or 
teacher  begins  to  give  him  more  positive  directions  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  certain  words — "  articles,"  for  in- 
stance— coupled  with  an  injunction  that  " you  must"  or 
"  you  must  not."  This  is  only  preparing  the  way  for 
the  higher  form  of  work  in  the  second  division,  when 
rules  and  positive  reasons  will  be  required  and  ex- 
plained. 

It  is  entirely  proper  and  in  accordance  with  actual 
experience  that  certain  definitions  should  be  taught  to 
children  as  they  progress  in  their  studies.  A  child 
should  know  how  to  define  a  "letter,  syllable,  word, 
spelling,  sentence"  etc.,  by  the  time  he  is  through  the 
Third  or  Fourth  Reader. 

Good  definitions,  known  and  understood,  enable 
pupil  or  teacher  to  stand  alone  and  battle  for  himself. 

Along  with  the  kinds  of  sentences  which  the  chil- 
dren early  in  school-life  learn,  the  essential  elements 
may  be  picked  out,  and  even  the  parts  of  speech  may 
be  taught  with  some  of  their  properties.  Definitions 
should  be  generalized  from  examples. 

8 


108    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  better  to  drop  a  suggestion 
in  regard  to  "  half-way  definitions."  Some  years  ago  it 
was  quite  common  to  hear  children  speak  of  "  telling 
sentences,  asking  sentences,"  etc.  Of  course,  these  de- 
scriptive terms  are  harmless,  but  sooner  or  later  they 
have  to  be  dropped  by  the  pupils.  In  place  of  wasting 
time  in  learning  or  using  them,  teach  definitions  that 
need  not  be  changed. 

The  sentence  is  the  unit  of  thought,  and  it  is  with 
it  that  the  philosophy  of  language  begins.  From  the 
sentence  the  mind  naturally  passes  to  those  elements 
or  constituents  composing  the  sentence,  and  then  to  the 
properties  of  these  elements  themselves. 

Whatever  classification  is  adopted  by  the  teacher  as 
to  the  form  and  the  use  of  the  sentence,  it  is  also  de- 
sirable that  the  "parts  of  speech,"  including  their  prop- 
erties, relations,  and  uses,  should  be  taught  at  the  same 
time. 

Technical  grammar  is  studied  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  helping  the  pupil  to  use  the  language  correctly, 
and  to  know  why  he  uses  one  form  of  expression  rather 
than  another.  This  study  enables  the  pupil  to  tell  what 
the  law  of  the  language  is,  and,  in  its  higher  forms,  why 
it  is. 

"  Diagramming  "  a  sentence  is  a  method  of  symbol- 
izing the  logical  structure  of  the  sentence,  and  helps  to 
bring  out  in  a  forcible  manner  its  meaning.  A  particu- 
lar diagram  shows  the  meaning  as  interpreted  by  him 
who  makes  the  diagram. 

In  the  work  of  analysis,  the  following  points  should 
receive  attention : 

1.  The  sentence  as  to  its  use. 


TEACHING    COMPOSITION  AND  LANGUAGE.  1Q9 

2.  The  sentence  as  to  its  form. 

3.  The  essential  elements. 

4.  The  modifying  elements. 

5.  The  connecting  and  independent  elements,  if  an  y. 

6.  The  parts  of  speech,  their  properties,  relations, 
and  uses. 

7.  The  reasons  for  the  same. 

8.  Combine  analysis,  diagramming,  and  parsing. 

Correcting  exercises  in  "  false  syntax  "is  an  excel- 
lent drill.  For  advanced  classes,  a  thorough  drill  in 
some  good  text-book  on  grammar  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  sound  scholarship  and  a  critical  knowledge  of 
the  laws  and  usages  of  our  language.  The  agreements 
and  differences  of  all  the  parts  of  speech  should  be 
thoroughly  discussed. 

THE    THOUGHT    ELEMENT. 

Dr.  Gregory  found  that  a  farmer's  little  son,  aged 
six  years,  in  one  week  used  more  than  six  hundred  dif- 
ferent words. 

In  the  acquisition  of  our  native  tongue  four  differ- 
ent ends  are  to  be  attained,  hence  there  are  four  differ- 
ent arts : 

1.  To  hear  and  understand  the  spoken  language. 

2.  To  speak  it. 

3.  To  read  and  understand  written  or  printed  lan- 
guage. 

4.  To  write  it  so  that  others  may  understand  what 
is  written. 

The  first  two  constitute  spoken  language ;  the  other 
two,  written  language.  The  first  two  are  acquired  nat- 
urally, but  the  latter  must  be  learned. 


HO  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

By  a  wise  provision  of  nature  the  infant  is  an  atten- 
tive listener,  and  becomes  an  interpreter  of  gestures  and 
sounds  before  it  can  exercise  its  power  of  speech,  being 
prompted  through  curiosity  to  observe  all  around  it. 
As  it  grows  older,  all  progress  in  spoken  language  is 
due  to  practice  and  imitation. 

In  the  acquisition  of  a  foreign  language  the  pro- 
cess is  somewhat  different. 

The  order  is  the  following  : 

1.  The  art  of  reading  the  language. 

2.  The  art  of  hearing  it. 

3.  The  art  of  speaking  it. 

4.  The  art  of  writing  it. 

By  the  first  two  the  words  recall  the  ideas,  and,  in 
the  second,  the  ideas  recall  the  words.  Lying  at  the 
foundation  of  all  language  culture  are  the  trained  eye, 
ear,  lips,  and  hand  :  the  eye  to  see,  the  ear  to  hear,  the 
lips  to  speak,  and  the  hand  to  write. 

Intellectual  progress  is  possible  by  noting  agreements 
and  differences.  All  knowledge  may  be  arranged,  ac* 
cording  to  Bain,  under  the  following  heads :  persons, 
places,  things,  actions,  results  of  actions,  states  or  situa- 
tions, and  feelings. 

Ideas  first,  the  words  that  represent  the  ideas  afterr 
ward,  is  Nature's  method  of  teaching  our  mother-tongue. 
The  sentence,  which  is  a  collection  of  words  making  a 
complete  thought,  is  the  unit  of  language. 

How  to  express  thoughts  by  words,  either  spoken  or 
written,  is  the  problem  that  the  teacher  is  called  upon 
to  face  in  the  school-room. 

Every  language-lesson  should  develop  the  thought- 
element  by  resolving  the  topic  into  its  component  parts, 


TEACHING   COMPOSITION   AND   LANGUAGE.  m 

beginning  at  the  first  and  presenting  only  one  topic  at 
a  time,  noting  all  its  conditions  and  relations,  and  thor- 
oughly mastering  them  before  proceeding  to  the  next 
difficulty.  Strike  in  one  place  to  make  a  "welding 
heat,"  is  a  safe  adage  in  teaching. 

The  art  of  using  language  is  acquired  only  by  fre- 
quent and  careful  exercise.  Attention  to  details  is  the 
condition  to  success.  In  every  written  exercise,  on 
slate,  blackboard,  or  paper,  the  following  points  are  to 
be  carefully  noted  by  teacher  and  pupil : 

1.  The  subject  matter.  2.  Neatness  and  the  orderly 
arrangement  of  the  parts.  3.  Language  and  grammati- 
cal construction  of  the  sentences.  4.  Punctuation,  spell- 
ing, and  capital  letters.     5.  Penmanship. 

To  write  or  talk  upon  any  given  topic  the  writer 
must  have  some  ideas  in  his  mind  that  he  can  express  in 
words,  and  consequently  he  must  be  familiar  with  some 
of  the  qualities  or  properties  of  what  he  proposes  to  de- 
scribe. Its  agreements  and  differences  he  has  already 
observed.  These  acts,  as  simple  as  they  may  appear,  in- 
volve all  the  elements  of  thought. 

To  set  this  in  a  still  stronger  light,  suppose  that  a 
sentence  is  placed  before  the  pupils  for  consideration. 
The  sentence  is  a  simple  one  :  "  The  waves  dashed 
high."  What  is  in  it  ?  Evidently  two  ideas,  "  waves  " 
and  "  dashed."  If  we  stop  at  "  waves,"  how  suggestive 
the  word !  "  Waves  " — a  thing  classed  under  a  form  of 
knowledge  ;  a  part  of  a  body  of  water  ;  which  is  also  a 
part  of  a  larger  body;  which  is  a  part  of  the  great 
body,  the  ocean.  Again,  we  may  take  another  view  of 
it  and  show  its  differences,  which  readily  suggest  them- 
selves.    But,  next,  the  pupil's  attention  is  called  to  the 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

word  "  dashed,"  and  he  sets  out  finding  agreements 
and  differences,  and  how  rich  the  results.  Not  content 
with  the  mere  statement  as  a  grammatical  collection  of 
words  to  be  analyzed  and  then  passed  by,  he  goes  fur- 
ther, and  connects  the  ideas  in  this  sentence  with  other 
knowledge  that  he  already  possesses.  As  to  the  me- 
chanical execution,  he  looks  out  for  capitals,  punctua- 
tion, and  penmanship.  Further,  he  sees  that  the  naked 
sentence  contains  two  essential  elements  and  two  help- 
ing elements,  and,  by  observation  and  induction,  in  due 
time  he  can  formulate  rules  in  regard  to  all  the  essential 
and  helping  elements  in  the  English  language. 

To  stimulate  and  direct  the  will-power  of  the  pupil, 
and  excite  him  to  do  the  most  for  himself,  is  the  best 
kind  of  instruction.  To  make  him  conscious  of  his 
own  ability,  and  capable  of  using  it  successfully,  is  the 
primary  work  of  the  teacher.  The  pupil  works,  puts 
forth  the  elfort  spontaneously ;  the  teacher  seconds  and 
directs  his  efforts.  By  degrees  the  learner,  having  confi- 
dence in  himself,  is  prepared  to  study  the  language,  not 
only  in  its  relation  to  facts,  but  in  its  philosophy  of 
facts.  Thus,  what  is  begun  as  an  unconscious  effort 
with  the  child,  and  acquired  as  a  habit,  may  be  devel- 
oped into  one  of  the  grandest  arts — the  art  of  beautiful 
and  elegant  speech.  For  nice  discrimination  and  the 
finer  shades  of  meaning — the  adjusting  of  words  to  the 
sense — certainly  the  structure  of  ourlanguage  admits  no 
superior. 

To  find  the  word  implies  the  highest  exercise  of  all 
the  intellectual  faculties,  and  in  this  respect  language 
offers  the  whole  range  of  science,  art,  and  literature  to 
select  from.     All  languages  then,  for  literary  purposes, 


TEACHING   COMPOSITION  AND  LANGUAGE.  113 

are  living  languages,  and  the  only  "  dead  language  "  is 
that  "  lifeless  form  "  doled  out  to  so  many  children  in  a 
parrot  manner  and  labeled  u  grammar." 

Composition. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Mental  processes. 

1.  Acquiring  knowledge. 

2.  Elaboration. 

3.  Expression. 

3.  Kinds. 

1.  Oral. 

2.  Written. 

1.  Ordinary  school. 

2.  Higher  forms. 

Language. 

1.  Use  of  words. 

2.  Relations  of  words. 

3.  Philosophy  of  words. 

4.  Suggestions. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

TEACHING    PENMANSHIP. 

"  When  he  did  sit  down,  he  tucked  up  his  sleeves,  squared  his 
elbows,  and  put  his  face  close  to  the  copy-book,  and  squinted  horri- 
bly at  the  lines." — Dickens,  Old  Curiosity  Shop. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  define  writing ;  all  know  what 
it  is ;  but,  under  this  head  of  teaching  penmanship,  we 
must  consider  three  things :  First,  what  it  includes ; 
secondly,  when  to  begin ;  thirdly,  how  to  teach  it. 
We  have  been  accustomed  to  consider  writing  only 
in  its  mechanical  aspects :  skill  in  imitation  and  per- 
sistent practice  were  the  only  factors  in  producing  a 
good  penman.  But  the  hand  that  does  the  work  must 
be  guided  by  the  will,  and  before  the  will  can  exercise 
its  function  there  must  be  in  the  mind  a  clear  concep- 
tion, a  distinct  picture  of  that  which  is  to  be  repro- 
duced. 

Writing,  as  to  its  mechanical  aspects,  requires  some 
preliminary  conditions:  First,  position  of  the  body, 
which  should  always  be  that  least  fatiguing  to  the  per- 
son, and  which  gives  perfect  freedom  to  all  the  muscles 
of  the  arm  and  hand,  and  no  part  of  its  weight  being 
permitted  to  rest  upon  the  arm  or  table.  The  body 
should,  therefore,  be  perfectly  erect,  whether  sitting  or 


TEACHING  PENMANSHIP.  115 

standing  at  the  desk,  and  the  feet  should  rest  squarely 
on  the  floor,  particularly  if  sitting.  Should  you,  reader, 
sit  down  to  write,  without  placing  your  feet  and  limbs 
properly,  you  will  discover  that  the  body  is  at  once 
thrown  out  of  the  erect  position,  and  tends  to  follow 
feet  and  limbs  into  paths  of  crookedness.  The  head 
should  be  kept  well  up,  not  bowed  as  if  in  shame  or 
grief,  or  seeking  repose  upon  either  shoulder.  Kesting 
securely  upon  its  slender  support — the  neck — it  can,  by 
easy  movements  from  side  to  side,  save  the  eyes  from 
strain  as  they  follow  the  work  in  its  progress  on  the 
page,  always  seeing  every  part  of  the  line  at  the  same 
angle,  thus  giving  surer  guidance  to  the  hand,  and  se- 
curing a  uniform  slant  to  the  letters.  The  arm  should 
be  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  across  the  page,  and 
resting  so  lightly  on  the  desk  that  it  can  move  easily 
from  side  to  side,  carrying  with  it  the  hand  that  wields 
the  pen.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  very  few  pupils  are 
found  in  any  of  the  schools  who  take  the  proper  posi- 
tion when  they  write.  They  seem  so  in  love  with  the 
subject  that  taey  bend  over  to  their  work.  It  must  be 
attractive,  indeed,  if  the  whole  body  must  be  distorted 
in  the  eagerness  to  "  get  down  "  to  writing.  Teachers 
should  not  fail  to  secure  a  strict  observance  of  the  re- 
quirements as  to  position,  for  upon  this  depends  much  of 
the  success  or  failure  in  further  instruction  in  penmanship. 
In  most  city  schools  it  has  been  for  years  the  custom 
for  pupils  up  to  the  middle  of  the  third  year  to  write 
on  paper  with  lead-pencils.  Having  given  much  thought 
to  the  subject,  I  am  now  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  pu- 
pils should  begin  writing  with  pen  and  ink  in  the  lowest 
grade.   Better  results  are  secured,  and  pupils  are  pleased 


116    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

with  it.  The  custom  of  doing  so  much  writing  with  a 
lead-pencil  is  productive  of  careless  habits,  and  conse- 
quently destructive  of  accurate  and  beautiful  work  with 
the  pen  in  the  hands  of  pupils,  as  the  nice  distinctions 
of  curves  and  shading  of  which  the  pen  is  capable  can 
not  be  made  with  a  pencil.  And  then,  again,  pencil 
work  is  so  easily  soiled  by  handling  as  to  make  its  use 
very  objectionable  in  anything  we  may  desire  to  pre- 
serve. Teachers  object  to  the  use  of  ink  in  the  lowest 
grades  because  of  inky  fingers  and  spattered  paper  and 
desks.  As  this  objection  may  be  made  to  the  first  use 
of  ink  by  pupils,  let  the  grade  be  what  it  may,  it  strikes 
me  that  the  neat  habits  necessary  to  its  successful  use 
would  better  be  taught  at  the  beginning  of  the  course 
of  study,  and  perpetuated  by  careful  attention  till  per- 
manently fixed,  thus  giving  the  teacher  in  the  middle 
or  upper  grades  less  to  do  in  habit  forming,  while  the 
time  can  be  more  profitably  spent  in  developing  the 
thinking  faculties. 

Having  insisted  upon  an  easy  position  of  the  body, 
we  come  now  to  consider  that  of  the  hand  which  holds 
the  pen,  and  how  it  holds  it.  But  position  is  now  to  be 
combined  with  movement,  and,  as  the  conditions  are 
more  complex,  more  time  and  greater  patience  may  be 
needed.  Little  feet  totter  when  first  they  start  out  to 
tread  life's  pathway,  and  so  little  hands  may  not  all  at 
once  come  into  or  remain  in  a  required  position  when 
in  use.  Do  not  discourage  children  by  too  rigid  re- 
quirements at  first.  The  pen-holding  hobby  is  some- 
times ridden  to  death.  If  teachers  would  talk  less  about 
holding  the  pen,  and  confine  the  attention  of  pupils 
more  closely  to  the  forms  of  the  letters  and  movements 


TEACHING   PENMANSHIP.  H7 

necessary  in  making  them,  they  would  succeed  better  and 
with  less  labor,  while  nerves  of  both  teachers  and  pu- 
pils would  be  spared  much  useless  tension.  As  chil- 
dren's feet  step  more  firmly  after  the  practice  which 
gives  confidence  to  the  mind,  so  will  little  hands  gain 
skill  and  strength  in  time,  and  as  the  mind  of  the  child 
under  instruction  becomes  familiar  with  the  forms  of 
the  letters,  and  eager  to  imitate  a  perfect  copy,  his 
hands  adapt  themselves  to  the  requirements,  and  the 
pen-holding  comes  to  take  care  of  itself.  This  does 
not  mean  that  the  teacher  should  neglect  this,  but  that 
he  should  not  be  impatient,  and  should  take  the  child's 
hand  gently  in  his  own,  quietly  and  tenderly  guid- 
ing till  it  knows  the  way.  Suppose  they  do  fail  at 
first;  they  try;  encourage  them.  Yery  few  teachers 
realize  how  weary  grow  the  pupils'  ears  with  the  pen- 
holding  din.  A  ball  of  yarn  placed  in  the  hand  of  a 
child  with  a  challenge  to  see  how  long  he  can  keep  it 
there  and  yet  scarcely  touch  it,  has  been  found  to  aid 
materially  in  training  the  child's  hand  to  take  and  re- 
tain the  correct  position.  When  a  boy  begins  to  use  a 
knife — the  joy  of  his  early  life,  the  companion  of  his 
riper  years,  and  a  precious  memory  when  time  has  sil- 
vered his  once  dark  locks  and  dimmed  the  lustrous  eye 
— would  you  keep  harping  at  him  about  holding  it  in  a 
certain  position  ?  Boys  and  girls  like  to  find  out  some 
things  for  themselves,  and,  in  the  matter  of  holding  the 
pen,  with  very  little  guidance  they  will  find  out  the 
best  way.  Persons  who  write  a  great  deal  tell  us  that 
they  must  frequently  change  the  position  of  their 
hands,  pens,  and  fingers,  and  that  the  position  required 
by  teachers  is  not  always  the  best. 


118    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Here  is  a  description  of  the  method  used  by  the 
Germans  in  teaching  the  position  and  movements  of  the 
hand  and  pen  in  forming  the  letters.  When  they  be- 
gin lessons  in  writing,  the  letter  to  be  imitated  is  first 
v/ritten  so  that  the  children  can  see  it.  Then  the  chil- 
dren describe  the  character,  and  imitate  in  air  the  move- 
ments used  in  making  it.  In  this  way  they  get  a  clear 
conception  of  its  form  and  the  necessary  movements. 
Looking  at  it  again,  teacher  and  children  together,  at  a 
given  signal,  describe  it  by  movements  in  the  air.  This 
brings  the  muscles  under  control,  so  that  the  fingers  are 
guided  by  the  will.  It  is  by  working  from  that  which 
is  known  and  seen,  connecting  the  movements  with  the 
mental  picture,  that  the  letter  is  easily  and  well  made. 
This  method  gives  practice  in  the  full  arm-movement, 
and  control  of  all  the  muscles  at  the  beginning,  and 
the  children  soon  learn  to  execute  in  a  most  rapid  and 
beautiful  manner. 

After  the  preliminary  instruction  as  to  position 
and  movements  are  understood  by  a  child,  he  is  to 
begin  the  work  on  paper,  and  it  is  very  important  that 
this  introduction  should  be  presented  to  him  in  a  ra- 
tional manner.  I  hold  it  to  be  true  that  writing  is  an 
intellectual  rather  than  an  imitative  art,  and  that,  as  the 
sculptor  has  in  his  mind  a  definite  conception  of  the 
form  he  expects  to  make  from  the  block  of  marble,  so 
must  there  be  iti  the  mind  of  the  child  a  distinct  picture 
of  that  which  he  is  to  produce  on  paper.  Once  made, 
he  compares  the  production,  the  writing,  with  his  men- 
tal picture,  and  criticises  his  own  work.  It  is  important 
that  when  a  pupil  looks  at  a  letter  he  can  tell  whether 
it  conforms  to  the  model.     Writing  from  this  concep- 


TEACHING  PENMANSHIP.  119 

tion  is  not  acquired  by  "  writing,"  but  from  intelligent, 
critical  practice.  It  is  indeed  possible  for  a  child  to 
practice  so  much  that  his  writing  shall  grow  worse  and 
worse. 

The  steps  in  forming  a  letter  are  as  follows :  First, 
the  pupil  looks  at  a  letter  till  he  gets,  a  clear  conception 
of  it ;  secondly,  he  tries  to  form  the  letter  like  the  model 
placed  before  him  ;  thirdly,  he  compares  his  work  with 
the  model,  and  notes  the  agreements  and  differences. 

At  first,  the  pupil  should  form  the  letters  slowly, 
and  always  with  care,  writing  more  rapidly  as  he  ac- 
quires skill  in  the  use  of  the  pen.  The  teacher  should 
never  allow  him  to  acquire  slovenly  habits,  but  remem- 
ber that  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  final  success. 
In  this  branch  of  school  work  the  result  of  poor  teach- 
ing is  seen  more  quickly  than  in  almost  any  other. 

The  old  plan  of  teaching  writing  was  a  very  simple 
one,  presenting  the  whole  subject  at  once.  The  first 
lessons  were  in  making  straight  lines  and  pot-hooks,  and 
the  only  instruction  regarding  position  was  "  Don't  get 
your  head  too  low "  ;  and  pupils  were  expected  to 
write  all  the  letters  from  the  first.  Now,  the  difficul- 
ties are  mastered  in  detail.  Requiring  a  pupil  to  write 
all  the  letters  as  his  first  exercise  is  like  giving  him  the 
fifth  reader  on  his  first  day  at  school.  It  is  the  foolish- 
ness of  teaching  ! 

The  safer  way  is  for  the  teacher  to  take  one  thing 
at  a  time.  If  there  is  no  writing  chart,  the  teacher, 
who  should  be  able  to  write  a  good  model,  should  place 
upon  the  board,  before  the  class,  a  copy  of  the  letter 
which  is  to  be  the  lesson  for  the  day.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  copy  should  be  beautiful,  but  it  should 


120    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

be  perfect  in  form,  and  large  in  size.  However,  the 
teacher  who  can  write  beautifully  can  more  easily 
interest  children  in  the  work,  and  get  better  results. 
Little  folks  have  an  eye  for  the  beaiitiful,  and  will 
watch  with  eager  interest  while  a  teacher,  skilled  in  the 
use  of  chalk  or  pen,  leaves  behind  her  moving  hand 
well-formed  and  beautiful  letters.  They  will  improve 
even  leisure  moments  in  trying  to  "  do  likewise."  While 
the  above  is  true,  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  teacher  who 
can  not  write  beautifully  to  teach  well.  I  know  one 
teacher  who  is  a  poor  penman,  but  whose  teaching 
power  is  so  great  that,  without  exception,  her  pupils 
write  very  beautifully.  Her  skill  in  getting  pupils  to 
do  their  own  work  so  well  is  exceptional,  but  it  shows 
that  writing  is  not  simply  an  imitative  art,  and  that  a 
teacher  can,  if  she  will,  teach  her  pupils  to  do  better 
work  than  she  herself  can  do. 

To  those  who  maintain  that  writing  is  simply  an 
imitative  art,  it  may  be  asked,  In  wThat  sense  is  it  imi- 
tative ?  Can  a  human  being  imitate  with  his  hand  that 
which  he  can  not  perceive  with  some  one  of  the  senses, 
or  of  which  he  can  not  get  a  conception  and  form  a 
mental  picture  ?  Does  not  the  will,  with  action  based 
upon  this  knowledge,  direct  the  muscles  ?  Does  the 
hand  act  involuntarily  when  it  imitates  a  form,  a  letter, 
a  motion  ? 

Again,  if  the  attention  of  a  writer  is  diverted  for  a 
moment,  the  hand  goes  astray,  and  the  letter  is  a  fail- 
ure. Let  any  one  try  the  experiment  of  giving  atten- 
tion to  something  else  for  a  moment  or  two,  and  note 
the  effect  upon  his  writing.  He  could  not  claim  that 
writing  is  not  an  expression  of  thought,  or  that  it  is  pos- 


TEACHING   PENMANSHIP.  121 

sible  to  do  two  things  well  at  the  same  time.  As  a  fur- 
ther illustration  of  the  importance  of  thinking  about  or 
teaching    one  thing  at  a  time,  let  a  beginner  make  the 

letter  j£ y  and  examine  it.  Can  anything  about  it  be 
pronounced  perfect  ?  No.  What  is  the  trouble  ?  Too 
much  has  been  undertaken  at  one  time.  He  has  not 
thought  how  each  part  should  be  made  so  that  the  whole 
letter  may  be  correct.  The  first  or  upward  stroke  is 
not  on  the  right  slant ;  the  second  or  downward  stroke 
is  a  curved  instead  of  a  straight  line,  resulting  in  a 
poor,  "bow-backed"  affair.  He  had  two  ideas  in  his 
mind — one  to  reach  the  base  line  and  the  other  to  make 
the  turn — when  he  made  that  downward  stroke.  The 
upward  stroke  was  very  nearly  on  the  right  slant,  and 
he  was  all  right  on  the  downward  stroke  till  a  certain 
point  was  reached,  and  then  all  was  wrong.  The  diffi- 
culty was  mental.  He  thought  of  coming  down  and 
making  the  turn  at  the  same  time,  and  expressed  the 
double  idea  that  was  in  his  mind ;  the  idea  not  being 
clearly  a  unit,  the  expression  was  not  clear,  and  there- 
fore the  letter  is  a  failure,  thus  giving  proof  that  it  is 
very  important  to  undertake  but  one  thing  at  a  time. 

Suppose  that  a  teacher  gives  to  the  child  a  whole 
letter.  It  is  too  much.  Keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  a 
letter  is  made  up  of  parts.  The  child  can  not  make 
the  whole  letter  correctly  before  he  knows  how  to  make 
each  part  composing  it,  or  has  at  least  in  his  mind  a  dis- 
tinct picture  of  each  part,  and  knows  the  order  in  which 
the  parts  occur.  He  must  practice  on  that  upward 
stroke  till  he  knows  it  perfectly,  then  on  the  downward 
stroke,  and  finally  on  the  finishing  stroke.  "With  a  per- 
fect conception  of  each  part,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 


122    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

movements  by  which  they  are  made  and  united,  he  can, 
at  will,  make  the  whole  letter.  In  this  way  the  entire 
alphabet  can  soon  be  taught,  taking  one  letter  at  a  time. 
When  a  child  is  once  thoroughly  familiar  with  every 
letter  in  the  alphabet,  in  its  simple  and  its  capital  form, 
he  can  write  words  and  sentences.  Then,  by  practice, 
he  becomes  more  and  more  perfect  m  the  execution 
till  he  can  write  legibly,  and  perhaps  beautifully. 

It  has  long  been  a  current  theory  that  the  best  way 
to  learn  writing  is  to  use  a  book  with  a  printed  copy, 
and  keep  the  pupil  imitating  that  copy.  That  is  the 
way  to  learn  not  to  write.  The  correct  way  to  learn  to 
write  is  to  get  a  mental  picture  of  each  letter,  a  picture 
so  perfect  that  it  can  be  reproduced  in  the  mind  at  any 
time.  This  form  in  the  mind  is  an  idea,  and  the  writ- 
ten letter  is  the  expression  of  this  idea. 

To  recapitulate.  The  steps  in  making  a  letter  are 
these :  First,  get  a  perfect  mental  picture ;  secondly,  re- 
produce this  mental  picture  ;  thirdly,  execute,  or  make 
the  letter.  It  is  just  as  it  is  with  an  inventor :  he  has 
first  in  his  mind  the  invention  which  he  expects  to 
give  to  the  world ;  he  invents  it  first,  then  expresses  it 
in  material  form,  visible  to  the  eye. 

The  letter  having  been  made,  it  is  criticised  by  com- 
parison with  the  model  which  is  in  the  mind — the  men- 
tal picture ;  or  it  may  be  criticised  by  comparison  with 
a  visible,  material  standard. 

Penmanship  is  a  science  based  on  educational  prin- 
ciples— principles  just  as  fixed  as  are  those  of  arith- 
metic— and  the  person  who  will  study  systematically  till 
he  forms  in  his  mind  a  correct  picture  of  every  letter, 
and  work  to  reproduce  it,  will  learn  to  write  well. 


TEACHING  PENMANSHIP.  123 

There  is  a  method  of  tracing  which  is  a  process  of 
mechanical  imitation.  There  are  copy-books  that  have 
thin  leaves  in  them,  and  the  child  follows  the  form  of 
the  letter  with  the  tissue-paper  between  the  letter  and 
the  pencil.  One  objection,  at  least,  may  be  made  to  this 
method.  It  takes  up  too  much  at  once,  and  is  not  in 
accordance  with  the  best  of  all  educational  maxims  : 
"  One  thing  at  a  time,  and  that  done  well, 
Is  a  very  good  rule,  as  many  can  tell." 

There  is  one  advantage  in  this  method :  the  atten- 
tion is  easily  concentrated  by  the  device,  and  the  hand 
becomes  skillful  in  following  the  shading  of  the  letters ; 
but  it  seems  to  me  that  the  same  result  can  be  best 
secured  by  training  the  pupil  in  the  way  already  indi- 
cated, so  that  by  a  mental  process  he  becomes  capable, 
not  only  of  doing  good  work,  but  of  intelligently  criti- 
cising his  own  work  and  the  work  of  others. 

Suppose,  now,  that  a  teacher  wishes  to  train  a  class 
in  penmanship — first,  as  a  science,  then  in  securing  me- 
chanical execution.  The  teacher  takes  a  writing-book, 
and  each  pupil  one  similar  to  it.  There  is  a  perfect 
printed  copy,  and  this  copy  a  new  letter — a  letter  they 
have  not  studied.  At  this  new  letter  each  one  looks 
very  carefully.  The  teacher  questions  in  regard  to  the 
form  of  that  letter,  the  parts  composing  it,  the  different 
proportions.  They  learn  how  to  measure  the  letter, 
how  to  analyze  it,  how  to  compare  their  own  efforts 
with  the  copy,  and  how  to  test  the  accuracy  of  their 
work.  They  can  see  their  own  mistakes,  and  describe 
in  language  the  proper  form  of  the  letter.  The  whole 
class  is  sent  to  the  board  to  write  the  letter  "  a,"  and 
Then   they  criticise,  each  his  own 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

work,  and  afterward  each  criticises  the  work  of  his 
classmates,  telling  in  what  the  failures  consist.  In  this 
way  they  are  taught  to  criticise,  and  to  express  their 
criticisms  in  words.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  in 
this  detail  work  we  must  pass  over  many  things.  But 
it  is  systematic  work.  In  writing,  let  each  one  do  his 
best;  let  there  be  no  careless  work.  Carelessness  in 
writing  must  not  be  tolerated  by  the  teacher,  and  all 
the  written  work  connected  with  other  lessons  should  be 
as  carefully  done  as  that  of  the  special  writing-lessons. 

The  objection  with  which  we  are  met  that  system 
in  writing  destroys  individuality  is  not  valid.  As  well 
might  we  say  that  system  in  spelling,  or  in  any  other 
subject  requiring  the  exercise  of  the  thinking  faculties, 
destroys  individuality  ;  and,  since  correct  writing  is  the 
expression  of  distinct  thought,  and  systematic  thinking 
develops  the  individual  mentally,  we  can  not  admit  that 
a  system  of  penmanship  closely  followed  destroys  indi- 
viduality. 

TnE   THOUGHT    ELEMENT. 

Penmanship  is  regarded  by  most  persons  as  a  kind 
of  imitative  art,  consisting  of  ninety-nine  per  cent  of 
practice,  and  perhaps  one  per  cent  of  theory.  The 
prevalence  of  this  idea  is  the  chief  cause  of  so  much 
illegible  hand-writing  among  the  educated  classes,  and 
in  all  seriousness  some  very  intelligent  instructors  do 
not  pretend  that  it  should  be  taught  in  a  systematic  and 
logical  manner. 

Through  the  aid  of  writing-charts  and  copy-books 
the  pupils  of  all  schools  may  have  excellent  models  for 
their  guidance,  provided  the  teacher  has  skill  and  tact 
in  teaching  the  subject. 


TEACHING  PENMANSHIP.  125 

The  best  results  I  have  ever  seen  in  penmanship 
were  achieved  by  two  teachers  whose  hand-writing  was 
very  poor  indeed  ;  yet  they  taughl  all  their  pupils,  with- 
out exception,  to  write  legibly  and  beautifully.  Their 
success  depended  upon  their  thorough  knowledge  of 
methods. 

The  true  method  of  teaching  penmanship  is,  that 
the  correct  form  of  the  letter  shall  be  studied  till  it  is 
fixed  as  a  reality  in  the  mind,  and  then  analyzed  into  its 
constituent  elements,  and  each  element  practiced  sepa- 
rately ;  and  finally,  by  an  act  of  synthesis,  these  parts 
united  into  one  whole,  or  the  letter.  By  this  process  a 
correct  idea  of  the  letter  as  a  whole  is  obtained. 

Following  this  is  the  next  step,  which  is  both  men- 
tal and  mechanical — mechanical  in  that  the  pupil  at- 
tempts to  put  on  the  paper  a  faithful  transcript  of  the 
form  in  the  mind,  or  that  he  gives  objective  expression 
to  his  mental  conception.  But,  should  the  intellectual 
act  of  the  mind  stop  here,  little  progress  is  made,  and 
penmanship  degenerates  into  a  dull,  insipid  drill.  After 
the  pupil  makes  an  attempt  to  form  a  letter,  he  should 
know  how  to  criticise  his  own  work  correctly.  Hence, 
ability  to  criticise  his  own  productions,  using  a  cor 
rect  ideal  for  a  test,  is  the  key  to  success  in  penman 
ship. 

The  following  illustration  will  enforce  this  idea : 

An  ingenious  writing-teacher  has  shown  that,  in 

the  formation  of  the  capital  [Qj\  twenty-four  different 
things  are  to  be  observed : 

First,  left  curve ;  secondly,  straight  line ;  thirdly, 
right  curve ;  fourthly,  oval  turn ;  fifthly,  left  curve ; 
sixthly,  oval  turn ;    seventhly,  right  curve ;   eighthly, 


126  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

loop  ;  ninthly,   right   curve ;  tenthly,    oval  turn ;  elev- 
enthly, left  curve. 

Measurement. 

First,  height  of  first  stroke ;  secondly,  width  from 
same  to  left  side ;  thirdly,  full  height ;  fourthly,  top  to 
junction  with  the  first ;  fifthly,  top  to  loop ;  sixthly, 
from  first  to  second  down  strokes ;  seventhly,  base  line 
to  last  oval  turn  ;  eighthly,  width  of  last  oval  turn ; 
ninthly,  from  last  stroke  to  loop. 

Criticism  of  this  Letter. 

First,  slant ;  secondly,  angle  of  loop ;  thirdly,  shad- 
ing ;  fourthly,  criticise  the  twenty  points  mentioned  in 
the  formation  and  measurements. 

The  same  method  of  analysis  holds  of  all  the  other 
letters — small  and  capitals. 

The  details  of  position — pen-holding,  movement  of 
the  muscles — are  a  matter  of  practice  ;  but  the  thought- 
element  comes  from  first  getting  a  correct  picture  or 
photograph  of  the  letter  in  the  mind  long  enough  to 
put  it  down  on  paper.  By  means  of  this  mental  picture 
the  pupil  is  his  own  critic,  and  in  case  of  doubt  he  can  ap- 
peal to  the  standard  on  the  chart  or  to  the  writing-book. 

Hence,  penmanship  as  a  science  first  appeals  to 
thought,  and  secondly  to  the  expression  of  thought,  and 
in  all  cases  the  principles  of  this  science  should  be 
taught  from  the  very  first  day  that  the  child  enters 
school  till  he  quits. 

The  following  directions  will  assist  the  earnest 
teacher  in  doing  this  work  well : 

1.  That  both  feet  rest  firmly  on  the  floor. 

2.  That  the  left  hand  rest  firmly  on  the  paper. 


TEACHING  PENMANSHIP.  127 

3.  That  the  pen  ~be  held  loosely  in  the  right  hand, 

4.  That  the  right  arm  and  right  hand  he  perfectly 
free  in  their  movements. 

5.  That  the  nose,  top  of  the  pen-holder,  and  pen- 
foint  are  in  the  same  straight  line  with  the  main  slant 
in  the  copy-book* 

6.  That  the  pupils  he  taught  to  criticise  the  size, 
slant,  and  space  of  each  letter. 

The  foregoing  reflections  and  suggestions  indicate 
in  general  the  central  thought  that  the  branches  should 
be  taught  so  as  to  cultivate  the  "  thinking  faculties." 
Every  branch  may  be  so  taught,  but  the  branch  is  noth- 
ing in  itself,  the  teacher  is  everything.  "  Who  is  the 
teacher  ? "  is  the  important  question. 

Writing. 

1.  What  it  includes. 

1.  Mechanical  execution. 

(a)  Position,  and  (&)  Movements. 

Body.  Head.  Hand. 

Feet,  Arm.  Pen. 

2.  Intellectual. 

a.  Mental  pictures.         e.  Synthesis. 

b.  Reproduction.  /.  Criticism. 

c.  Expression.  g.  Comparison. 

d.  Analysis. 

II.  When  to  begin. 

a.  With  pen. 

b.  With  ink. 

In  lowest  grades. 

III.  How  to  teach. 

a.  Show  perfect  model.  c.  Criticism, 

b.  Get  mental  picture.  /.  One  thing  at  a  time. 

c.  Reproduction.  g.  Thoroughly. 

d.  Execution.  h.  Summary. 


CHAPTEE  X. 


TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


Simon  Tappektit,  one  of  Mr.  Dickens's  characters, 
prided  himself  upon  his  ability  "  to  eye  things  over." 
Primary  geography  is,  pre-eminently,  a  study  to  be 
"eyed  over,"  whether  in  nature  or  in  a  book.  The 
words  in  the  book  tell  about  geography,  while  the  real 
objects  show  what  geography  is. 

Before  the  child  is  old  enough  to  attend  school,  he 
has  picked  up  considerable  information  on  geography, 
but  it  is  not  assorted.  By  all  means  he  should  get  his 
knowledge  at  first  hand  and  from  the  best  sources. 
The  flowing  river,  the  babbling  brook,  the  pond  in  the 
meadow,  the  miniature  island  in  the  lake,  the  names  of 
trees,  birds,  and  flowers,  are  seen  and  learned  by  taking 
an  afternoon  stroll.  What  can  be  more  enjoyable  to 
little  hearts  than  such  a  ramble  ?  Pleasure  and  science 
both  combined !  How  often  such  a  lesson  will  reveal 
to  the  teacher  dormant  tendencies  in  children's  char- 
acters that  she  never  suspected  of  existing  !  Wherever 
there  is  a  school-honse,  some  objects  of  interest  can  al- 
ways be  found  to  illustrate  many  technical  definitions  in 
geography,  if  the  teacher  knows  how  to  look  for  them 


TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY.  129 

and  how  to  use  them.  As  all  knowledge  is  related  to 
something  that  precedes  it,  and  also  to  something  that 
follows  it,  to  carry  ont  the  law  of  harmony  that  subsists 
between  what  the  child  knows  and  what  he  does  not 
know,  he  must  begin  with  what  he  knows  as  so  much 
capital  stock  and  add  each  new  acquisition  to  it.  Should 
he  commence  with  the  unknown,  the  very  remote,  or 
obscure,  and  go  to  that  which  is  still  more  obscure,  bank- 
ruptcy is  the  inevitable  result. 

As  soon  as  the  child  has  become  familiar  with  the 
real  objects  at  home,  those  on  the  way  to  school, 
and  those  at  the  school-house,  he  is  prepared  to  begin 
the  process  of  representation,  by  making  drawings  or 
pictures,  of  the  objects  he  has  seen.  This  step  is  also 
accompanied  with  either  an  oral  or  written  description 
of  the  object,  thus  uniting  language  instruction  with 
geographical  information.  The  latter  process  helps  to 
fix  the  information  in  the  mind. 

At  this  stage  in  the  learner's  progress,  many  of  his 
ideas  are  immature  and  need  to  be  corrected  by  experi- 
ence. Only  in  rare  instances  has  he  clear  notions  of 
distance,  height,  weight,  size,  and  measure.  Experience 
only  can  give  this  knowledge.  Eventually,  after  re- 
peated failures  and  mistakes,  he  is  enabled  to  judge 
with  a  tolerable  degree  of  accuracy.  All  progress 
comes  through  mistakes  and  corrections. 

To  draw  a  rude  map  of  the  school-house  and  sur- 
rounding objects  is  the  first  step  on  the  way  toward 
a  definite  conception  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and 
the  determination  of  a  point  on  the  earth's  surface. 
The  pupil  must  learn  that  location  on  a  surface  can  not 
be  fixed  exactly  except  by  the  intersection  of  two  lines 


130    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

crossing  at  right  angles.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  fix  the 
latitude — the  longitude  also  must  be  ascertained. 

When  the  child  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  begin  the 
primary  geography  as  a  text-book,  the  lessons  should  be 
read  first  in  the  class,  the  teacher  questioning  every  pupil 
as  to  the  meaning  of  each  topic.  Judicious  questioning 
should  bring  to  the  surface  what  the  pupils  think  the 
meaning  is,  rather  than  the  teacher's  views.  The  skillful 
teacher  draws  out  adroitly  the  pupils'  information,  and 
corrects  mistakes  afterward.  By  the  time  the  pupil 
begins  the  primary  text-book,  he  ought  to  be  able  to 
multiply  and  divide  numbers,  and  consequently  to  esti- 
mate distances  on  the  maps,  and  to  convert  by  the 
"  scale  of  miles  "  map-measurements  into  statute  miles. 

The  sand  and  molding-board  hobbies  are  base  de- 
ceptions that  can  not  be  employed  by  persons  '*  who 
have  a  very  sacred  regard  for  truth."  Any  ordinary 
molding-board  product  must  of  necessity  be  so  over- 
done as  to  convey  the  grossest  exaggeration,  a  thing 
certainly  to  be  avoided  in  teaching  children  conceptions  of 
real  things.  Not  long  since  the  writer  had  occasion  to 
examine  one  of  the  molded  maps  of  the  United  States. 

Comparing  the  depression  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver 
with  the  elevation  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  on 
the  east  and  the  Eocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  the 
channel  of  the  river  was  about  five  hundred  miles  below 
the  two  mountain  systems.  Certainly  the  teacher  is 
intrepid  who  would  teach  children  relations  between 
natural  objects  so  far  from  the  truth. 

In  primary  geography,  the  book  should  be  used 
chiefly  as  a  reader,  and  not  as  a  work  to  be  committed 
to  memory  and  to  be  recited  verbatim. 


TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY.  131 

As  far  as  possible  the  pupils  should  illustrate  the 
meaning  of  each  paragraph  from  their  own  experience. 
After  the  lesson  is  read  and  understood,  the  pupils  may 
close  their  books  and  answer  the  questions  connected 
directly  or  remotely  with  the  subjects  mentioned  in  the 
lesson. 

The  intelligent  teacher  will  not  take  the  words  that 
the  pupil  uses  for  a  complete  expression  of  the  thought 
he  has  in  his  mind.  At  this  stage  of  the  learner's 
progress,  he  is  busy  in  trying  to  get  ideas  out  of  the 
books  he  reads,  and  particularly  so  when  the  book  he 
reads  is  geography.  In  this  study,  as  in  most  others, 
the  pupil  must  depend  largely  upon  faith.  He  is 
obliged  to  take  for  granted  what  others  say.  His  eyes 
can  take  in  only  a  very  limited  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Hence  a  few  definitions,  a  little  observation 
of  his  own,  and  a  large  mass  of  information  gained  from 
the  records  and  observations  of  others,  will  constitute 
his  geographical  information,  even  should  he  make  great 
progress  in  this  interesting  branch  of  science. 

Advanced  Geography. 
Leaving  what  is  called  primary  geography,  the 
pupil  is  prepared  to  take  up,  under  the  title  of  "  Ad- 
vanced Geography,"  some  of  the  most  interesting  topics 
of  study  connected  with  our  earth,  such  as  its  position, 
shape,  size,  density,  physical  features,  etc.,  as  compared 
with  other  bodies  in  the  same  system.  Kitter  tells  us 
how  the  three  great  natural  kingdoms,  mineral,  vegeta- 
ble, and  animal,  though  each  having  an  independent 
form,  are  related  in  a  three-fold  way  to  the  earth's  sur- 
face and  to  human  history. 


132    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Viewed  in  this  light,  geography  becomes  an  intensely 
interesting  study,  as  leading  all  the  way  from  nature's 
lowest  forms  to  God,  whose  breath  gave  spirit  to  his 
image — man. 

The  whole  surface  of  the  globe  is  condensed  into 
an  epitome  on  a  mountain  side  ;  yet  we  hardly  realize 
it.  All  the  changes  that  a  few  miles  of  travel  from  the 
level  of  the  ocean  to  the  top  of  the  mountain  can  give 
are  such  as  a  person  would  experience  in  traveling  for 
weeks  or  months  from  the  burning  regions  of  the  tor- 
rid zone  to  the  perpetual  cold  of  the  frigid. 

In  the  study  of  geography  we  are  brought  face  to 
face  with  those  grand  manifestations  of  physical  nature 
which  fill  our  hearts  with  awe  and  reverence.  Here  it 
is  that  the  thoughtful  student  catches  glimpses  of  those 
mysterious  currents  of  air  that  circle  the  earth  from 
pole  to  pole,  and  those  still  more  majestic  rivers  in  the 
ocean,  whose  banks  never  overflow  ;  and  yet.  these 
themes,  so  captivating,  receive  little  or  no  attention  in 
most  schools,  while  memorizing  names  of  unimportant 
objects  occupies  nearly  all  the  learner's  time.  It  is  true 
that  local  geography,  or  geography  of  place,  may  be 
learned  by  committing  detached  names,  provided  the 
learner  is  favored  with  a  retentive  memory  ;  but  it  is  a 
more  rational  method  for  the  learner,  when  reading  his- 
tory or  the  newspaper,  and  finding  references  to  locali- 
ties on  the  earth's  surface,  to  provide  himself  with  a 
map  for  reference,  so  that  he  can  locate  those  places 
about  which  he  reads.  Suppose  it  be  the  "  Ketreat  of 
the  Ten  Thousand  " :  with  the  map  spread  open  before 
him,  the  reader  traces  out  the  marches  and  counter- 
marches of  Xenophon  and  his  heroes.     He  learns  to 


TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY.  133 

know  the  people  and  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
country  which  they  traversed. 

To  understand  Napoleon's  campaigns,  his  retreat 
from  Moscow  for  instance,  what  can  make  a  more  vivid 
impression  npon  the  mind  of  the  reader  than  to  follow 
d  iy  by  day  that  famishing  army  through  the  snows  of 
a  Russian  winter  ?  To  appreciate  the  perils  experienced 
in  the  Arctic  regions,  take  the  map,  and  as  you  read 
follow  the  weary  footsteps  of  the  explorers.  To  know 
even  the  history  of  our  own  country  during  the  dark 
and  gloomy  period  of  the  Revolution,  the  paths  of  the 
contending  forces  must  be  followed  from  day  to  day. 

Let  the  learner  begin  with  a  blank  map,  which  con- 
tains the  parallels  and  meridians  and  the  coast-lines.  As 
he  reads,  he  locates  places,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.,  and, 
by  the  time  he  is  through  the  book  or  subject,  he  will 
have  acquired  a  good  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
country.  The  map  grows  daily  under  his  own  eye  and 
hand.     He  literally  knows  it,  for  he  has  made  it. 

Thus  time  and  place  are  both  associated,  and  Geog- 
raphy and  History  join  hands  not  to  be  divorced.  They 
are  dependent  upon  each  other.  In  their  union  the 
seeker  after  truth  is  led  out  of  the  mechanical  details  of 
the  subject  and  endows  it  with  a  higher  life.  The  dry 
bones  rattle  no  more,  and,  instead  of  a  task  for  dull 
minds,  there  is  a  theme  of  fascinating  interest  and  sur- 
prising beauties. 

Geography  is  the  science  that  opens  the  gateway  to 
the  other  great  departments  of  organic  and  inorganic 
nature.  On  the  one  hand  is  spread  out  in  the  grandest 
profusion  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  with  its  myriad 
forms,  whether  growing  on  the  earth  or  in  the  sea ;  one 


134    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

step  more,  and  the  rocky  leaves  of  the  book  of  nature 
are  turned,  and  the  history  of  the  animal  kingdom  is 
read  in  the  silent  bnt  emphatic  language  of  the  past, 
telling  of  the  eras  before  man,  the  highest  type.  The 
earth  was  made  for  man,  and  geography  tells  us  the  story 
of  its  preparation.  Shall  we  not  cease  to  teach  geogra- 
phy, then,  as  a  collection  of  isolated  facts  ?  Let  us  unite 
these  facts  into  one  grand  truth.  Then  we  shall  rise 
above  the  level  of  lifeless  form  into  the  region  of  the 
spiritual — from  the  created  to  the  Creator. 

It  is  interesting  to  study  about  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals which  vary  with  the  altitude  as  with  the  latitude. 
Geography  leads  us  into  the  great  field  of  botany,  and 
from  that  to  the  animal  kingdom,  with  its  extinct  species 
imbedded  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  telling  us  of  its 
changes  before  even  man,  who  came  last  and  highest, 
began  his  dominion  over  all  the  earth. 

More  important  still  are  the  social  and  intellectual 
conditions  of  men,  and  those  peculiarities  which  distin- 
guish one  nationality  from  another.  Historians  for  a 
long  time  wrote  of  the  rulers,  and  but  little  was  said 
about  the  people.  Now,  men  are  studying  into  the 
social  and  intellectual  conditions  of  the  people  them- 
selves ;  they  wish  to  know  why  some  nations  have  risen 
to  the  plane  they  now  occupy;  why  all  this  culture; 
why  the  schools,  the  press,  the  railroad,  the  steam-engine, 
and  everything  that  tends  to  make  man  better,  happier, 
wiser.  These  questions  are  springing  up  in  the  minds 
of  thinking  men  and  women  everywhere ;  and  I  know 
of  no  class  of  persons  more  capable  of  investigating 
these  subjects  than  teachers.  They  should  be  well 
versed  in  social  science,  in  political  economy,  and  in 


TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY.  135 

all  kindred  topics.  Not  only  should  they  be  able  to 
answer  the  questions  children  ask,  but  they  should  be 
able  to  answer  the  questions  of  the  age. 

Mighty  issues  are  coming  forward  for  solution  in  all 
civilized  countries.  The  intelligent  teachers  will  help 
in  the  work  of  conducting  the  nations  safely  through 
these  stormy  periods.  Knowing  clearly  the  natural  and 
acquired  rights  of  the  citizen  as  a  member  of  the  state, 
they  will  prepare  the  school  children  to  assert  their 
personal  rights  and  to  perform  their  duty  to  the  state. 
A  clear  understanding  of  social  and  political  duties,  and 
of  the  complex  relations  between  the  various  industries 
and  occupations,  all  teachers  should  possess.  No  longer 
can  the  teacher  be  a  mere  "  school-master."  He  must 
be  a  citizen  of  the  world,  and  he  must  stand  and  feel 
where  its  great  heart  beats  the  strongest. 

Religions,  beliefs  that  men  have,  have  always  at- 
tracted more  attention  than  anything  else.  They  are 
beliefs  in  the  unseen,  and  all  have  them.  Comparing 
these  beliefs,  we  learn  to  be  tolerant.  All  truth  is  not 
with  us.  Truth  is  many  sided,  and  different  persons 
look  at  it  from  different  points,  no  two  seeing  it  alike, 
though  one  person  may  be  just  as  conscientious  as 
another  person. 

Hence  it  is  that  the  geography  of  nature  leads  us  to 
the  geography  of  man,  and  opens  up  to  us  the  grandest 
themes  which  can  be  presented  to  the  human  mind  for 
contemplation.  All  the  earth  was  made  for  man,  and 
there  is  not  one  interest  of  his,  from  the  lowest  animal 
want  to  the  highest  spiritual  longing,  that  is  not  pro- 
vided for;  and  geography  tells  us  the  story  of  that  pro- 
vision. 


136    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 


NATURAL    SCIENCE. 

Reaction  is  strong  against  the  usual  methods  of 
teaching  natural  science  in  all  grades  of  schools  and  col- 
leges, and  to-day  the  question  is,  Shall  we  use  the  syn- 
thetic or  the  analytic  method,  or  combine  them,  in 
teaching  science  ? 

Common  sense  answers  by  saying,  "  Use  both."  The 
beginnings  of  the  natural  sciences  are  founded  upon  the 
observation  of  facts  which,  with  their  phenomena,  are 
arranged,  classified,  reduced  to  systems  according  to  the 
laws  which  produced  them.  To  account  for  the  present 
existence  of  things  and  phenomena  is  the  province  of 
the  natural  sciences. 

God's  will  is  the  natural  law,  and  man  is  the  inter- 
preter, and  the  correct  interpretation  depends  upon 
man's  ability  to  lead  the  volume  of  nature  as  it  is  writ- 
ten. This  brings  us  to  the  question  of  how  to  study 
and  how  to  interpret  nature. 

Formerly,  nature  was  studied  too  much  in  the  closet ; 
the  whole  system  of  the  universe  was  elaborated  from 
lamp-smoke  and  bad  air.  But  it  is  the  present  convic- 
tion that,  to  get  definite  knowledge,  objects  themselves 
must  be  examined,  and  the  knowledge  had  at  first  hand'. 

Before  the  child  goes  to  school,  considerable  scien- 
tific knowledge  has  been  acquired,  not  only  of  the  land 
and  water,  but  of  animals,  vegetables,  and  in  some  in- 
stances of  minerals.  This  knowledge,  it  is  true,  is  in 
fragments,  but  the  teacher  can  assist  the  child  in  group- 
ing it  into  classes. 

Undoubtedly  the  child  should  begin  the  study  of  all 
the  natural  sciences  in  the  objective  form  first ;  and 


TEACHING   GEOGRAPIIY.  137 

not  from  definitions  in  books,  or  from  pictures,  or 
maps.  The  true  order  is  the  object,  the  word  next,  or 
the  expression  of  the  idea  represented  or  aroused  by  the 
object ;  and  lastly,  the  picture  or  representation  of  the 
object.  To  begin  with  definitions  is  to  put  the  general 
notion  before  the  individual  idea — a  reversal  of  nature's 
method  and  of  the  experience  of  the  race. 

To  illustrate  the  above  :  Geography,  a  subject  stud- 
ied in  all  our  common  schools,  is  most  frequently  taught 
from  verbal  definitions  and  map-drawing.  But  before 
the  pupil  goes  to  school  he  possesses  quite  a  fund  of 
detached  information  on  this  subject,  and  he  should 
begin  with  what  he  knows,  and  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown. 

Again,  the  true  idea  of  the  map  having  been  taught, 
the  pupil  should  find  out  how  to  measure  distances, 
using  the  "  scale  of  miles  "  and  ruler  for  this  purpose. 
Other  relations  will  also  be  ascertained  which  will  greatly 
aid  the  pupil  in  getting  a  proper  estimate  of  distance 
and  direction.  Immediately  following  this  is  attention 
to  parallels  and  meridians.  To  appreciate  this  means 
of  fixing  location,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  all 
points  on  planes  are  located  by  the  intersection  of  two 
lines,  and  that  distances  are  measured  from  their  inter- 
section. This  simple  idea  is  the  central  thought  in  all 
astronomical  and  terrestrial  computations  pertaining  to 
distances  and  areas,  and  is  the  natural  key  to  map- 
drawing. 

Early  in  the  study  of  geography  the  pupil  should  be 
encouraged  to  classify  his  knowledge  and  to  systematize 
it.  Too  often  it  is  learned  and  recited  in  "broken 
doses."      For  instance,   any   particular   country  when 


138    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

studied  by  advanced  pupils  may  be  outlined  under  the 
following  divisions :  1.  Position.  2.  Physical  features. 
3.  Natural  productions.  4.  The  inhabitants.  5.  Their 
improvements.  6.  Their  institutions.  7.  Differences 
from  other  countries  as  well  as  similarities.  These  topics 
should  be  expanded  by  the  pupil  and  the  subdivisions 
filled 

Rising  still  higher  is  the  department  of  physical 
geography,  which  is  the  philosophy  of  our  earth  and  all 
that  pertains  to  it. 

In  its  relations  to  other  bodies  it  is  a  planet,  com- 
posed of  land  and  water,  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere. 
In  its  history  it  reveals  the  past  through  its  dead  forms, 
and  its  present  life  by  its  living  ones.  Not  only  facts, 
but  the  philosophy  of  facts,  tempt  us  into  one  of  the 
most  inviting  fields  of  nature. 

Pouring  knowledge  into  passive  minds  is  erroneous 
teaching.  Gathering  knowledge  by  the  mind  itself  is 
true  instruction.  Teachers  should  only  stimulate  the 
pupil  to  independent  work.  Let  it  be  remembered  that 
none  of  the  natural  sciences  are  to  be  studied  from 
books  alone.  Books  are  only  helps — not  masters — and 
teachers  and  pupils  should  not  be  slaves  to  them.  From 
direct  contact  with  facts,  the  pupil  must  draw  his  con- 
clusions by  memorizing  less  and  thinking  more.  "With 
9  each  pupil  two  objects  are  sought  to  be  accomplished, 
namely,  habits  of  mind,  and  methods  of  thinking. 


TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY. 


139 


Geography. 
Primary. 

1.  Home. 

2.  School -house. 

3.  Village,  town,  etc. 

4.  County. 

5.  State. 

6.  Nation. 

7.  Continent. 
Advanced. 

Nature—Earth. 

1.  Position. 

2.  Shape. 

3.  Size. 

4.  Relief. 
Man. 

1.  Races. 

Primary. 

2.  Organizations. 

Social. 

3.  Governments. 

4.  Industries. 


1.  Situation. 

2.  Boundary. 

3.  Sketch;  Map. 

4.  Surface. 

5.  Climate. 

6.  Waters. 

7.  People. 


5.  Climate. 

6.  Vegetation. 

7.  Animals. 


Secondary. 


Civil. 


Religious. 


10 


CHAPTER  XL 

TEACHING    HISTORY. 

Four  questions  present  themselves  upon  the  thresh- 
old of  this  subject : 

I.    Why  Teach  History  f 
II.    When  Teach  It? 

III.  How  Teach  It? 

IV.  What  Effect  should  he  Produced  f 

These  topics  will  be  discussed  in  the  order  they  are 

numbered. 

I.  Why  Teach  History? 

As  soon  as  the  child  begins  to  reflect  upon  his  own 
existence  and  surroundings,  he  connects  himself  in 
6ome  way  with  those  about  him.  He  hears  his  parents 
speak  of  relatives  and  friends,  and  he  is  aroused  to  the 
fact  that  he  is  related  to  his  parents'  relatives.  Their 
friends  and  acquaintances  also  are  not  so  far  removed 
from  him  as  entire  strangers.  Gradually  his  field  of 
experience  enlarges,  and  he  begins  to  trace  backward,  by 
questioning,  the  history  of  individuals  and  other  ob- 
jects. This  desire  to  find  out  the  origin  of  things  is 
instinctive  with  the  race,  and  is,  when  exercised  in  the 
direction  of  history,  only  one  of  the  many  indications  of 
the  normal  action  of  the  mind. 


TEACHING   HISTORY.  141 

All  knowledge  is  first  individual  experience.  Each 
individual  is  therefore  constantly  enlarging  his  circle  of 
knowledge  by  his  own  observation  and  the  testimony  of 
others.  It  is  certainly  natural  for  the  child  to  be  in- 
quisitive in  regard  to  those  things  that  concern  himself 
and  those  with  whom  he  is  acquainted. 

In  this  sense,  then,  the  child  commences  the  study 
of  history — that  is,  personal  history — long  before  he  en- 
ters the  school-room.  Even  here  he  still  continues  the 
process  of  gathering  facts  and  arranging  them,  often- 
times crudely  enough,  into  a  dim  historical  whole. 
With  this  indistinct  outline,  the  child  enters  school. 
His  surroundings  are  different  from  those  of  home.  He 
is  thrown  into  a  busy,  organized  community  of  which 
he  is  a  member.  Right  and  justice  stand  side  by  side 
with  him  now.  Certain  things  he  must  do  and  others 
he  must  avoid.  Adjusting  himself  to  his  new  surround- 
ings, the  idea  of  obedience  to  authority,  because  it  is 
commanded,  is  forcibly  inculcated.  Back  of  the  school 
authority  he  learns  soon  to  discern  other  powers  mani- 
fested in  the  presence  of  civil  officers.  Thus  is  he  in- 
troduced to  the  state,  and  made  to  feel  that  he,  too,  is  in 
some  sense  an  object  of  interest  to  this  higher  power. 

But  in  this  country,  where  the  ballot  of  one  individ- 
ual may  elect  the  chief  magistrate  to  the  highest  office 
known  to  our  laws,  the  history  of  the  country  is  an  es- 
sential branch  of  a  common-school  education.  Intelli- 
gent citizenship  is  the  primary  object  of  studying  his- 
tory in  the  common  schools.  This  demand  is  a  require- 
ment of  the  age.  It  is  imperative  and  must  be  obeyed. 
Our  civil,  political,  military,  religious,  and  social  institu- 
tions are  different  from  those  of  all  other  civilized  na- 


142    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

tions  of  the  globe.  The  idea  that  our  career  has  thus 
far  reached  in  history  is :  that  of  universal  education 
and  absolute  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law. 

The  plea  that  I  now  make  is :  that  all  our  children 
should  become  more  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit 
and  genius  of  our  institutions  ;  that  our  national  history, 
with  all  its  struggles  for  freedom,  is  as  much  of  an  in- 
heritance for  the  child  whose  eyes  first  opened  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic  as  it  is  for  the  one  born  in 
our  own  native  land.  In  no  other  way  can  we  counter- 
act those  wild  and  vague  notions  so  foreign  to  our  insti- 
tutions and  so  detrimental  to  our  peace  and  prosperity. 

It  has  been  truthfully  said  that  the  permanency  of 
our  government  depends  upon  the  intelligence,  the  vir- 
tue, the  wisdom,  and  the  patriotism  of  our  citizens. 
Patriotism  is  innate  in  the  human  breast,  but  parents 
and  teachers  should  direct  it  aright. 

The  little  boy  of  to-day  is  the  voter  of  to-morrow. 
With  these  obligations  resting  upon  him,  he  should  come 
to  the  ballot  with  a  clear  understanding  of  what  it  means 
and  what  it  represents.  Back  of  the  ballot  should  be 
seen  freedom,  purity,  and  patriotism ;  one  country,  one 
hope,  one  destiny — and  that  universal  progress.  Bum 
it  into  the  hearts  of  our  children  that  the  destiny  of 
America  is  the  destiny  of  humanity  ! 

II.  When  Teach  It? 

Under  this  division,  the  following  subdivisions  nat- 
urally arise : 

1.  Facts.  2.  The  relation  of  facts.  3.  The  phi- 
losophy of  facts. 

These    subdivisions  correspond    somewhat   to   the 


TEACHING  HISTORY.  143 

order  in  which  the  human  mind  is  developed.  If  this 
classification  is  founded  upon  a  correct  interpretation  of 
mental  development,  then  the  teachers  work  is  greatly 
simplified,  and  the  question  relates  to  the  predominating 
stage  of  mental  activity,  and  the  kind  of  knowledge 
appropriate  to  that  stage.  At  this  point  no  mistake 
should  be  made.  Two  topics  here  must  be  considered, 
the  order  of  development,  and  what  kind  of  knowledge 
is  required  to  produce  the  necessary  result;  or,  more 
specifically,  what  kind  of  history  is  appropriate  at  any 
stage  of  the  learner's  progress  ? 

1.  The  history  of  our  own  country  is  of  first  impor- 
tance to  the  American  boy  or  girl.  Let  us  suppose  a 
class  of  pupils  able  to  read  fairly  well  in  the  Third 
Keader.  .  What  should  such  a  class  read  ?  I  reply : 
Some  good  work  containing  stories  of  American  history. 
No  school-boy  can  read  such  a  work  without  kindling 
his  patriotism  over  the  story  of  the  trials,  the  struggles, 
and  the  self-sacrificing  devotion  of  our  forefathers  to 
those  principles  of  freedom  for  which  they  risked  their 
lives  and  fortunes.  Such  stories,  if  told  in  simple  yet 
touching  language,  go  home  to  the  heart.  The  child 
can  not  read  them  unmoved. 

2.  Coming  one  step  higher,  we  meet  the  admirable 
primary  histories  issued  by  our  enterprising  publishers. 
While  they  treat  chiefly  of  facts,  yet  the  relation  of 
facts  is  brought  somewhat  into  view. 

These  books  are  intended  for  Third  and  Fourth 
Reader  pupils,  and  should  be  used  as  supplementary 
readers.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  majority  of 
school-children  never  go  beyond  the  Fourth  Reader,  and 
they  ought  to  get  some  knowledge  at  least  of  our  na- 


144    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

tional  history  before  leaving  school.  A  taste  formed  for 
historical  reading  thus  early  in  life  will  grow  and 
strengthen  with  the  years  as  they  glide  by. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  event  in  the  little  child's 
life  is  the  reading  of  his  first  book,  not  his  school-reader, 
but  some  volume  that  he  takes  up  and  reads  through 
and  through.  How  he  goes  back  and  pores  over  again 
and  again  the  most  interesting  pages  and  makes  them 
his  own,  how  he  returns  to  them  in  after  years,  and 
how  unaccountably  he  lingers  there  and  drinks  from 
the  fountain  that  quickened  and  slaked  his  thirst  in  the 
bright  sunshine  of  his  youth  !  It  is  true  that  the  first 
book  may  not  have  been  one  of  great  merit,  yet  on  the 
clean,  unscratched  tablet  of  the  memory  it  stamped  im- 
pressions deep  and  lasting.  They  were  the  first,  and 
they  are  always  fresh  and  living.  Where  is  the  Ameri- 
can boy  that  read  in  early  life  Weems's  "  Life  of  Mari- 
on "  without  receiving  such  an  impression  ?  It  paints  a 
character  pure  and  lofty,  and  moved  always  by  the 
noblest  impulses  of  a  dignified  and  generous  nature. 

The  life  lessons  there  so  strikingly  portrayed  are 
such  as  every  boy  should  learn.  But  this  is  only  one 
book  among  many  that  may  be  placed  in  the  hauds  of 
children  helpful  in  the  formation  of  character. 

3.  At  this  stage  the  pupil  is  able  to  take  a  higher  view 
of  men  in  action.  Time  and  place  are  accidents  in  the 
unfolding  of  irresistible  forces,  which  man  may  partially 
direct,  but  is  unable  to  control.  Before  his  mind  a 
moving  panorama  is  placed,  and  nations  come  and  go  on 
the  waves  of  time.  The  birth,  the  growth,  maturity, 
decline,  and  decay,  are  written  of  those  that  once  were, 
but  now  are  not.     He  studies  each  for  a  predominating 


TEACHING  HISTORY.  145 

idea — the  national  characteristic.  This  central  thought 
embodies  the  philosophy  of  the  nation's  existence.  It  is 
compared  with  the  central  ideas  of  other  nations,  and 
the  agreements  and  differences  are  noted. 

To  the  student  of  history,  be  he  statesman,  philoso- 
pher, or  teacher,  the  philosophy  of  history  is  one  of  the 
grandest  themes.  It  goes  to  the  most  exalted  heights 
and  descends  to  the  lowest  depths.  In  verity  it  is  the 
bond  that  unites  many  factors  into  one  complex  whole. 

III.  How  Teach  It? 

The  fact  that  history  is  so  unpopular  is  owing  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  taught.  All  the  soul  is  taken 
out  of  it.  A  few  disjointed,  ill-shapen  facts  are  strung 
together  and  called  "  history,"  and  repeating  these  ver- 
batim is  called  a  "  history  recitation." 

There  are  two  principal  avenues  to  the  mind — the 
eye  and  the  ear ;  and,  in  teaching,  both  are  to  be  em- 
ployed. History,  then,  must  be  presented  objectively 
to  the  eye  :  its  leading  facts  grouped  and  spread  before 
the  eye  of  the  pupil,  on  chart,  paper,  or  blackboard, 
and  dwelt  upon  till  they  become  a  part  of  the  mind's 
furniture.  Through  the  eye  the  understanding  is 
reached  most  effectively,  and,  besides,  the  habit  of 
classification,  one  of  the  chief  benefits  derived  from  the 
pursuit  of  any  branch,  is  stimulated  to  a  healthy  activity 
in  the  arrangement  of  facts,  their  causes  and  sequences. 
To  facilitate  the  teaching  of  history,  charts  have  been 
prepared,  showing  at  a  glance  the  leading  events  of  any 
period  and  their  locality.  The  nations  are  represented 
by  different  colors,  so  as  to  trace  their  history  with  less 
difficulty.     By  referring  to  the  chart,  a  moment  only  is 


146    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

necessary  to  determine  whether  at  a  certain  date  a  na* 
tion  was  progressing  or  receding  in  political  importance. 

The  lesson  assigned  must  be  definite  in  extent,  com- 
mencing at  a  certain  paragraph  and  closing  with  as  much 
precision,  and  with  additional  instruction  to  aid  the  class 
to  find  out  whatever  is  available  from  other  sources  on 
the  subject.  This  is  beneficial  in  stimulating  to  new 
fields  of  thought.  The  lesson  being  prepared,  the  class 
is  called  by  signals  to  the  board.  For  convenience,  the 
class  may  be  divided  into  three  or  more  sections,  and 
numbered  as  sections  1,  2,  3,  etc.  Section  1  may  draw 
a  map  of  the  country  and  indicate  the  localities  men- 
tioned in  the  lesson ;  section  2  may  write  exhaustive 
analyses  of  the  lesson  on  the  board ;  members  of  section 
3  may  prepare  condensed  reviews  of  previous  lessons. 
Besides  the  work  mentioned,  a  large  blank  map  can  be 
used  to  great  advantage  in  this  manner :  Draw  a  simple 
outline  map  of  the  country,  and,  as  the  class  advances, 
one  or  two  members  can  fill  in  the  details  day  by  day. 
The  map  grows  with  the  progress  of  the  class.  Colored 
crayon  is  recommended  in  drawing  this  map.  Two  fifths 
of  the  recitation  can  be  devoted  profitably  to  this  written 
work,  and  the  work  should  so  alternate  that  no  pupil  docs 
the  same  kind  of  written  work  during  two  successive 
recitations.  Every  member  of  the  class  must  work,  and 
it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  see  that  this  requirement  is 
strictly  complied  with. 

During  the  remaining  portion  of  the  recitation,  the 
work  should  be  oral.  Undivided  attention  is  the  firct 
condition  of  a  good  recitation.  Each  member  of  the 
class  should  be  held  personally  responsible  to  commence 
or  to  continue  a  topic  whenever  called  upon  by  the 


TEACHING   HISTORY.  147 

teacher.  Pupils  are  to  use  their  own  language,  express 
their  thoughts  in  pleasant  and  agreeable  tones  of  voice, 
and  speak  the  language  correctly.  Boys  frequently  say 
what  they  do  not  intend,  and  stammer  and  hesitate  for 
words.  To  remedy  this  defect,  they  should  be  per- 
mitted to  try  till  they  tell  all  there  is  to  be  said.  The 
jconamon„practice  of  excusing  from  further  recitation  as 
soon  as  a  mistake  is  made  can  not  be  too  severely  cen- 
sured. Here,  two  extremes  are  to  be  avoided  :  the  first, 
too  much  talk  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  the  second, 
permitting  a  few  good  pupils  to  do  the  reciting  for  the 
class.  A  proper  distribution  of  work  is  indispensable 
in  the  school-room.  Corrections  in  spelling,  capitals, 
punctuation,  pronunciation,  language,  and  the  material 
facts  of  the  lesson,  ought  to  be  made  by  the  class.  A 
healthy  spirit  of  criticism  is  a  powerful  incentive  to 
correct  scholarship  and  accuracy  in  every  respect. 

With  respect  to  grouping  important  events  in  gen- 
eral history,  a  few  words  may  not  be  devoid  of  interest. 

As  an  example,  the  sixteenth  century  is  chosen.  It 
is  pre-eminently  a  century  of  storms — political,  ecclesi- 
astical, and  intellectual."  They  burst  in  tornado  violence 
on  the  nations  of  Europe,  uprooting  and  overturning 
old  institutions. 

France,  England,  Spain  and  Germany  stood  con- 
fronting one  another.  Early  in  the  century,  three  young 
monarchs  had  ascended  the  thrones :  Francis  I,  of 
France,  Henry  VIII,  of  England,  and  Charles  V,  King 
of  Spain  and  Emperor  of  Germany.  Each  was  bold, 
daring,  unscrupulous,  and  ambitious.  The  discoveries 
made  in  the  new  world  had  aroused  the  minds  of  the 
people  to  independent  inquiry  and  bold  investigation. 


148     PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

During  this  period,  Luther's  pen  and  voice  shocked, 
then  stirred  to  action,  the  religious  world.  The  contest 
was  soon  transferred  to  the  battle-field.  Never  before 
in  the  world's  history  had  the  human  mind  asserted  its 
spiritual  freedom. 

From  this  starting-point,  the  student  may  trace  the 
current  of  history  backward  into  the  ignorance  and 
gloom  of  the  dark  ages,  or  go  forward,  keeping  pace 
with  the  tide  of  civilization.  It  is  unnecessary  to  mul- 
tiply illustrations  ;  the  teacher  can  select  them. 

IV.   What  Effect  should  be  Produced? 

Hitherto  the  pupil  is  supposed  to  follow  the  current 
of  history  without  entering  fully  into  the  spirit  of  it, 
only  in  so  far  as  he  comprehends  the  motives  of  the 
actors  themselves.  He  has  arrived  at  that  critical  stage 
in  his  mental  development  when  he  is  partially  pre- 
pared, at  least,  to  enter  wider  spheres  of  human  activity, 
and  to  contemplate  the  actions  of  men  as  the  resultant 
of  forces  designed  to  accomplish  specific  purposes.  He 
so  far  forgets  himself  for  the  time  being  as  to  become 
Greek,  Roman,  Crusader ;  in  short,  he  thinks,  lives,  and 
feels  what  he  reads.  As  the  nations  come  and  go  upon 
the  ever-changing  scenes  of  time,  he  follows  their  en- 
trances and  exits,  and  learns  from  their  birth,  progress, 
maturity,  and  decay,  that  they,  too,  are  governed  by 
universal  laws.  From  all  these  lessons  of  the  past  he 
accumulates  knowledge  which  enables  him  to  compare 
the  civil,  political,  military,  and  religious  institutions 
of  the  ancients  and  moderns  with  those  of  his  own 
country.  Having  his  mind  well  stored  with  such  in- 
formation, he  is  better  qualified  to  discuss  all  public 


TEACHING  HISTORY.  149 

questions,  of  whatever  nature,  than  the  one  who  is  un- 
able to  draw  practical  lessons  from  the  experiences  of 
other  nations. 

Should  the  student  take  our  country  as  his  model, 
he  most  know  its  history  in  all  its  minutiae  as  well  as 
in  its  boldest  outlines,  and  then  compare  the  history  of 
other  countries  with  it,  and  note  the  differences  and 
agreements  as  he  prosecutes  his  inquiries.  Material 
gathered,  classified — conclusions  deduced — are  the  steps 
in  the  mental  process.  There  was  a  Greek  civilization 
different  from  ours,  yet  ours  is  flavored  with  Athenian 
thought ;  a  Kornan  civilization  certainly  not  ours,  but 
we  have  borrowed  much  from  it ;  from  the  forests  of 
Germany,  the  sunny  plains  of  Italy,  the  valleys  of 
France,  the  lowlands  of  Holland,  the  hills  of  Scotland, 
and  the  downs  of  England — each  and  all  have  con- 
tributed elements  to  our  civilization.  To  pick  them 
out  and  assort  them  is  the  task  of  the  special  historian ; 
yet,  after  this  refining  process  is  carried  out  to  the  last 
analysis,  there  will  be  found  much  that  is  distinctively 
American.  Climate,  circumstances,  laws,  manners,  cus- 
toms, distinctive  traits  of  character,  even  wit  and  humor, 
cause  one  nation  to  differ  from  others. 

In  our  country  man  is  the  unit,  and  his  individuality 
is  offered  the  fullest  and  freest  scope.  No  barriers  are 
imposed  to  arrest  his  highest  forms  of  mental,  moral, 
and  social  development.  Authority  and  liberty  join 
hands,  and  the  freedom  of  the  individual  is  limited  only 
by  the  welfare  of  the  whole. 

As  a  mere  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  very  important 
to  know  that  Columbus  sailed  from  a  port  in  Spain  on 
the  3d  day  of  August ;   but  it  is  important  that  he 


150    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

sailed,  discovered  an  unknown  world,  and  that  it  was 
colonized  by  the  best  blood  of  Spain,  and  that,  while 
Spaniards  settled  the  new  world,  Spain  lost  her  su- 
premacy in  the  old  world. 

To  comprehend  the  differences  existing  between 
our  laws,  manners,  customs,  modes  of  education,  com- 
mercial, manufacturing,  and  agricultural  pursuits,  and 
those  of  other  nations,  the  pupil  is  obliged  to  familiarize 
himself  with  the  fundamental  principles  upon  which 
governments  are  instituted,  laws  are  enacted  and  car- 
ried into  effect,  and  the  rights  of  individuals  and  the 
liberties  of  the  people  are  secured.  Society,  under 
whatever  aspect  it  is  viewed,  is  a  complex  organism, 
and  governmental  authority  in  different  countries  is 
maintained  and  exercised  under  widely  different  forms. 
To  compare  these  forms  and  to  study  them  ;  to  ascertain 
how  the  civil,  municipal,  and  other  authorities  settle 
disputes  and  administer  justice  among  men,  are  sub- 
jects of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  education  of  the 
citizen  who  is  to  prize  the  form  of  government  under 
which  he  lives. 

Not  only  should  the  intelligent  citizen  clearly  under- 
stand the  origin,  development,  and  nature  of  our  gov- 
ernment, with  its  marked  outlines  and  co-ordinate  de- 
partments nicely  and  wisely  adapted  to  one  another, 
constituting  a  compact  system  that  rests  for  its  support 
upon  the  affections  and  reverence  of  the  people,  but  he 
must  also  understand  how  it  is,  as  an  expression  of  the 
popular  will  expressed  by  representatives  on  the  one 
side  and  the  consent  of  the  people  on  the  other,  opposed 
to  those  forms  of  government  whose  citizens  have  had 
no  hand  in  forming  and  no  voice  in  approving. 


TEACHING  HISTORY.  151 

That  a  citizen  in  some  sense  has  had  a  hand  in  shap- 
ing the  form  of  government  under  which  he  lives,  and 
that  he  has  compared  his  own  workmanship  with  that 
of  other  people,  and  that  it  does  not  suffer  in  the  com- 
parison, tend  to  beget  a  contentment  with  the  present 
condition  of  affairs,  and  a  disposition  to  prevent  radical 
changes  in  politics  without  due  deliberation.  If  evils 
exist,  he  prefers  peaceable  means  at  the  ballot-box  as  a 
corrective.  Confidence  in  the  people  exists,  and  he 
knows  that  the  people  get  close  enough  to  the  fountain- 
head  to  make  and  to  unmake  congressmen,  senators,  and 
presidents.  This  is  the  ever-present  remedy  he  relies 
upon  for  changing  the  existing  order  of  things.  Upon 
every  hand  is  felt  the  strong  power  of  the  government, 
manifested  more  in  its  moral  influence  than  in  its  official 
capacity.  Everywhere  civil  officers  abound,  but,  except- 
ing policemen,  without  the  insignia  of  office.  Should 
his  knowledge  by  travel  be  enlarged,  he  is  impressed 
upon  every  hand  by  the  continual  presence  of  national 
officials,  tax-gatherers,  civil  magistrates,  and  other  public 
functionaries. 

Experience  has  taught  the  pupil  somewhat  of  the 
duties  of  the  various  township,  county,  town,  city,  state, 
and  national  officers,  how  they  are  elected  or  appointed, 
and  he  naturally  inquires  what  duties  corresponding 
officers  in  other  countries  perform,  how  they  are  ap- 
pointed, and  the  limits  of  their  functions.  Such  in- 
quiries open  up  a  boundless,  though  not  a  useless,  field 
for  investigation.  It  will  show  that  the  roots  of  our 
civil  system  lie  deep  in  the  nations  that  preceded  ours, 
and  that,  in  a  large  degree,  our  form  of  government  is 
eclectic    TJnder  all  climes  human  nature  is  pretty  much 


152    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

the  same,  and  man  is  never  degraded  in  using  power 
except  when  he  consciously  and  willfully  abuses  the 
authority  entrusted  to  his  keeping. 

History  as  such  must  always  be  read  in  the  light  of 
motives.  If  the  student  of  history  interprets  it  by  any 
other  light,  he  is  journeying  across  an  unknown  sea 
without  chart  and  compass. 

To  teachers  of  history  I  can  not  conclude  this  topic 
in  a  more  becoming  manner  than  by  quoting  the  follow- 
ing extract : 

"  We  educate  the  future  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  not  the  future  citizens  of  Prussia,  of  France,  of 
England,  of  China,  or  of  Japan.  This  must  dictate 
our  methods.  Nor  shall  we  forget  that,  although  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  they  are  to  be  men  and  women. 
The  particular  shall  not  swallow  up  the  general:  "We 
will  not  educate  Spartans.  Nor  shall  the  general  ob- 
literate the  particular :  We  will  not  educate  blank  ab- 
stract humanitarians." 


CHAPTER  XII. 

TEACHING   ARITHMETIC. 

Me.  Darwin  tells  us  that,  when  three  persons  went 
into  a  thicket  in  which  a  magpie  had  its  nest,  it  would 
fly  away,  and  wait  for  the  three  to  go  out  before  it 
came  back ;  but  that,  when  more  thau  three  went  into 
the  thicket  together,  and  then  went  out  one  at  a  time, 
it  became  confused ;  clearly  indicating,  as  he  thought, 
and  as  many  believe,  that  the  bird  could  count  up  to 
that  number,  three,  and  retain  it  in  its  mind  ;  but  that 
above  three  it  was  unable  to  keep  a  correct  record. 
There  are  some  persons,  and  it  may  be  said  some  tribes 
of  people,  who  appear  to  be  unable  to  count  to  any  ex- 
tended degree.  Beyond  five,  ten,  or  twenty,  they  can 
only  represent  the  numbers  which  they  can  not  com- 
prehend. The  idea  of  number  is  evidently  intuitive, 
and  the  disposition  to  count  seems  to  have  its  origin  in 
the  distribution  and  collection,  the  separating  and  the 
bringing  together,  of  things  used  in  the  common  trans- 
actions of  life.  This  gives  us  the  basis  of  all  mathe- 
matical reasoning.  Arithmetic  has,  from  the  time  of 
the  ancient  Greeks,  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  essen- 
tial branches  of  study  in  school.  Should  you  ask  to- 
day what  two  studies  are  most  important  in  our  school- 


154    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

work,  the  reply  would  be,  without  hesitation,  "  reading 
and  arithmetic,"  because  upon  these  two  depend  all 
classification  in  the  lower  grades  of  schools.  Reading 
is  the  hey  that  unlocks  the  door  of  the  temple  of  knowl- 
edge ;  and,  if  we  consider  it  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
( Germans  use  it  in  their  schools,  it  includes  grammar, 
literature  —  everything  that  we  bring  under  the  term 
"  language."  It  is  by  means  of  language  that  we  com- 
municate and  receive  knowledge  on  all  subjects,  and 
hence  it  is  the  "  key." 

Arithmetic  is  the  basis  of  all  classification  of  pupils. 
In  putting  this  subject  prominently  forward,  I  would 
not  be  understood  as  underestimating  in  any  degree  the 
importance  of  other  branches.     » 

Two  objects  must  be  kept  in  view  in  teaching  arith- 
metic :  first,  accuracy ;  secondly,  rapidity  ;  but  these  are 
the  results  of  attentive  practice.  Above  these,  how- 
ever, is  the  development  of  the  faculty  of  consecutive 
thought.  Arithmetic  is  to  most  children  a  pleasing 
study.  They  love  certainty  in  their  work;  and  this 
study,  properly  taught,  carries  with  it  that  degree  of 
freedom  from  error  which  places  it  upon  a  higher  vant- 
age-ground than  can  be  accorded  to  the  other  common 
branches.  Yet,  as  it  is  usually  presented  in  the  text- 
books, it  is  dry,  and  requires  the  greatest  tact  and  skill 
upon  the  part  of  teachers  to  make  it  attractive  and  in- 
teresting. 

Many  methods  have  been  proposed  for  teaching 
arithmetic  to  small  children.  It  is  not  our  purpose, 
nor  would  it  be  appropriate,  to  pass  judgment  upon 
them  now.  There  is  something  good  in  every  method. 
But  the  average  child  knows  more  than  the  teacher 


TEACHING   ARITHMETIC.  155 

gives  him  credit  for,  and  the  routine  drill  which  is  too 
commonly  practiced,  and  which  ignores  what  the  child 
already  knows,  stupefies  instead  of  stimulates  the  intel- 
lectual faculties. 

The  human  mind  delights  to  see  truths  under  a 
variety  of  forms,  and  to  reduce  new  and  complete 
forms  back  to  original  and  known  elements.  This  is 
why  a  devotee  of  mathematics  finds  such  exquisite  de- 
light  in  unraveling  intricate  relations  and  expressing 
them  in  known  symbols. 

The  trouble  which  so  many  teachers  experience  in 
getting  pupils  to  understand  arithmetic  is  not  inher- 
ent in  the  subject  itself,  nor  in  the  mental  inabiL 
ity  of  pupils  to  comprehend  it,  except  in  rare  in' 
stances,  but  is  owing  entirely  to  defective  methods  of 
instruction. 

Not  many  years  since  an  assistant  superintendent  of 
schools  in  a  Western  city  concluded  that  the  pupils  there 
could  not  learn  arithmetic  because  of  certain  atmospheric 
conditions  which,  in  some  mysterious  manner,  obscured 
the  mathematical  faculty.  The  reason  for  this  defect 
was  not  in  the  atmosphere,  unless  in  that  of  the  school- 
room. Haziness  probably  existed  in  the  mental  atmos- 
phere of  the  teacher. 

When  a  mother  says  to  me  that  her  daughter  can 
not  learn  arithmetic,  I  feel  sorry  for  both  mother  and 
daughter,  though  not  satisfied  that  her  statement  is  cor- 
rect. There  may  be  imbeciles,  unable  to  learn  arith- 
metic or  any  other  subject,  and  there  may  be  those  who 
make  slow  progress,  but  the  difficulty  is  usually  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  subject  has  not  been  properly  pre- 
sented. Some  pupils  learn  more  easily  than  others,  but 
Jl 


156    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

it  is  quite  certain  that  the  ordinary  rules  of  arithmetic 
can  be  learned  by  any  person  not  an  imbecile. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  this  problem  is  in  teaching 
arithmetic  to  beginners.  The  mind  of  the  child  ought 
to  expand  gradually  in  all  directions,  and  should  not  be 
confined  in  its  actions  to  mere  mechanical  drill,  lest  it 
lose  its  elasticity  and  buoyancy.  Pnpils  commence 
arithmetic  as  soon  as  they  enter  school,  and  it  is  at  the 
beginning  that  most  care  is  to  be  exercised  in  avoiding 
that  air  of  abstractness  which  is  made  to  surround 
and  mystify  a  subject  that  would  otherwise  be  easily 
understood.  No  number  should  be  given  them  with- 
out its  application  to  objects  which  they  can  see.  Let 
it  be  to  them  clearly  a  concrete  number. 

Suppose  we  visit  a  school-room  together  m  which 
there  are  seventy  pupils  about  six  years  of  age.  There 
is  a  nicely  carpeted  platform  for  the  teacher,  and  on  this 
platform  a  table  with  a  beautiful  cover  on  it.  In  the 
room  is  a  large  number  of  pictures — some  hanging  on 
the  walls,  others  resting  against  them.  On  the  table 
are  more  than  fifty  different  kinds  of  objects  that  the 
eye  can  see :  rubber  dolls,  several  of  one  kind ;  little 
pewter  pans ;  little  shells,  that  have  been  picked  up  by 
the  children  ;  and  many  other  little  objects.  Note  the 
character  of  the  exercises.  The  children  have  been  in 
school  but  a  short  time.  At  first,  they  were  liable  to 
forget  where  their  seats  were,  and  lose  themselves;  but 
now  they  will,  at  a  given  signal,  advance  with  the  pre- 
cision of  soldiers,  coming  out  into  the  aisles  to  go 
through  their  calisthenic  exercises,  and  then  return  to 
their  seats.  They  know  exactly  where  they  belong,  and 
can  solve  problems. 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.  157 

What  do  they  do  ?  One  little  fellow  rises  and  says : 
<c  John  gave  Mary  two  dolls,  and  had  two  dolls  left ; 
how  many  dolls  had  he  at  first?"  He  then  goes  to 
the  table,  picks  up  two  dolls,  and  says :  "  There  are  two 
dolls  left."  Then  he  picks  up  two  more  dolls,  puts 
them  with  the  first  two,  and  shows  that  there  are  four 
dolls.  Now,  he  wishes  to  express  this  on  the  board. 
He  might  first  try  to  make  a  picture  of  the  object,  but 
he  has  already  begun  to  use  the  symbols,  and  writes 
2  +  2  =  4.  In  fifteen  minutes  these  children  make 
more  than  fifteen  problems,  each  child  who  makes  one 
explaining  it  to  the  other  children,  showing  the  objects 
he  has  used.  This  is  rational  teaching,  not  parrot-like 
teaching,  but  genuine,  beginning  with  what  the  child 
knows  and  understands,  and  teaching  him  to  reason 
from  this  to  the  unknown.  It  is  readily  seen  that  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  the  method.  No  person  can  come 
out  of  a  school  in  which  such  a  system  is  pursued  and 
say  that  the  children  do  not  understand  what  they  are 
doing.  They  learn  by  doing  with  material  things,  and 
can  understand  the  process  and  the  result.  There  is 
but  a  step  from  the  "doing,"  as  just  illustrated,  to  the 
introduction  of  symbols  —  the  figures  which  express 
things  to  us.  One  can  see  a  boy;  then,  without  the 
presence  of  the  boy,  he  can  speak  of  a  boy ;  then  of  a 
picture  of  a  boy.  He  can  hear  the  spoken  word  "  boy  "  ; 
he  can  see  the  written  or  printed  word  "  boy " ;  but 
when  it  comes  to  symbols,  the  boy  may  be  represented 
by  the  figure  u  1,"  and  the  child  soon  learns  to  deal  with 
figures  as  symbols  of  objects. 

There  is  no  teaching,  no  culture  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  in  requiring  a  pupil  to  stand  and  count  to  a 


158    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

hundred,  a  thousand,  or  any  other  number,  unless  illus- 
trations should  be  made  with  objects  collected  by  the 
children  from  all  sources  at  their  command.  This  keeps 
up  a  deep  interest  in  the  subject,  and  it  helps  to  fix 
the  principles  in  the  mind.  There  is  no  reason  why 
little  children  should  not  be  taught  to  work  with  the 
simpler  fractions  just  as  they  do  with  whole  numbers. 
They  enjoy  the  work,  and  take  as  great  interest  in  illus- 
trating it. 

Not  long  since,  in  visiting  a  second-grade  (second 
year  in  the  primary  school)  room,  I  gave  the  following 
problem  to  the  pupils:  "If  a  load  of  wood  costs  three 
dollars  and  a  half,  what  would  four  loads  cost  ? " 

The  teacher  spoke  up  at  once,  u  These  children  have 
not  had  fractions  " ;  but,  before  she  had  finished  the 
sentence,  nearly  all  hands  were  up,  and  the  answer  came 
promptly,  "$14."  Here  is  the  solution  they  gave  me: 
"  At  $3  a  cord,  it  would  cost  $12,  and  at  half  a  dollar  a 
cord,  four  cords  would  cost  $2 ;  and  $12  and  $2  are 
$14."  Yet  these  Second  Header  children  had  never 
studied  fractions,  and  the  teacher  was  surprisingly  ig- 
norant of  the  information  they  had  on  the  subject  of 
fractions. 

The  teacher  ought  to  fond  out  how  much  the  children 
know,  instead  of  assuming  that  she  knows  it  without 
inquiry. 

CULTURE   OF   THE   THINKING   FACULTIES. 

A  question  among  educators  is  how  to  teach  each 
branch  so  as  to  develop  the  thinking  faculties.  The 
following  suggestions  are  submitted  as  having  a  direct 
bearing  on  this  subject : 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.  159 

1.  For  every  problem  selected  from  the  text-book, 
select  three  problems  from  outside  sources. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  make  new  or  original  problems, 
or  else  vary  the  conditions  of  those  already  given,  and 
then  solve  them.  The  sooner  pupils  are  put  to  making 
problems,  or  changing  the  conditions  of  those  already 
given,  the  better  they  will  understand  the  subject,  aud 
the  more  substantial  will  be  their  progress. 

3.  When  the  pupil  comes  to  a  new  problem  he  tries 
to  bring  it  under  a  form  that  he  already  knows — that 
is,  he  seeks  a  relationship,  and,  when  .this  is  once  found, 
he  proceeds  to  reduce  it  by  an  already  familiar  process. 

4.  Trace  all  problems  back  to  primary  principles. 
Since  the  idea  of  number  is  intuitive  with  the  race, 

the  object  of  the  educator  should  be  to  develop  this 
faculty  in  a  natural  manner  as  the  intellectual  powers 
of  the  pupil  are  unfolded.  The  order  of  developing 
this  subject  is  not  different  from  that  in  teaching  other 
branches.  Evidently  the  very  lirst  process  is  that  of 
putting  together,  followed  immediately  by  separation. 

Objects  first  attract  the  child's  attention,  and  then 
he  endeavors  to  put  them  together  and  to  remember 
them,  or  to  tell  how  many  there  are.  From  this  it  is 
inferred  that  all  arithmetical  teaching  at  first  should  be 
real  or  objective.  Close  study  of  child-mind  points 
unmistakably  to  the  following  order : 

1.  Objects. 

2.  Numbering,  or  naming  objects. 

3.  Names  of  objects  as  numbers. 

4.  Symbols  of  numbers. 

5.  Working  with  symbols. 

6.  Practical  applications. 


160    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

As  is  well  known,  the  subject  of  arithmetic  is  fre- 
quently taught  in  such  a  manner  as  to  stifle  all  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and  from  the  fact  that  they 
do  not  understand  the  processes  that  they  mechanically 
perform.  Instead  of  approaching  the  subject  through 
the  natural  channel  of  objects,  they  are  introduced  at 
the  outset  to  the  symbolic  processes,  which  lie  beyond 
their  reach. 

All  rational  methods  begin  with  objects  first,  then 
followed  by  the  word  that  groups  the  objects  into  one 
whole,  and,  lastly,  .the  symbolic  number  which  is  more 
general  than  the  name  of  the  object.  Again,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  in  mental  processes  the  mind  puts 
together  and  separates,  and  this  constitutes  analysis  and 
synthesis ;  and,  further,  after  the  pupil  has  acquired 
the  art  of  reading  and  writing  numbers,  that  all  the 
operations  which  can  be  performed  on  numbers  may 
be  reduced  to  the  following:  Increasing,  decreasing, 
raising  to  powers,  and  extracting  roots.  Furthermore, 
that  the  whole  chain  of  mathematical  reasoning  is  a 
series  of  comparisons,  or  a  discovering  of  relations  that 
subsist  between  the  known  factors  in  a  given  question 
and  those  that  are  implied.  The  idea  of  comparison 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  Pestalozzi's  system  of  teaching. 
It  gives  his  philosophy  of  education  its  intellectual 
value.  And  upon  this  principle  is  also  based  the 
"  Grube  Method,"  which  is  measuring  numbers  in  and 
under  all  possible  combinations.  Perhaps  the  author 
carries  it  too  far,  but  it  contains  many  valuable  features, 
and  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  every  primary 
teacher  in  our  country.  But  there  are  other  features 
connected   with  arithmetical   teaching  which   demand 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.  161 

careful  consideration,  and  first  and  foremost  is  this  prin- 
ciple :  To  understand  arithmetic  the  child  must  at  first 
do  the  work  objectively,  and  then  put  it  into  the  sym- 
bolic form. 

This  meaning  can  best  be  understood  by  a  few  appro- 
priate illustrations.  The  ordinary  method  of  teach- 
ing this  subject  is  to  make  the  learners  proficient  in 
handling  abstract  numbers  before  introducing  concrete 
examples ;  processes  are  accounted  of  more  permanent 
value  than  the  reasons  upon  which  processes  are  based. 
While  not  undervaluing  this  feature  of  arithmetical 
operations,  it  is  a  violation  of  the  natural  order  in  which 
knowledge  is  acquired  to  put  it  first.  Nature's  method 
is  that  of  intelligent  work  before  generalizations  can  be 
deduced. 

Suppose  the  pupil  in  his  progress  in  arithmetic  is 
set  to  learning  the  table  for  "Wine  Measure."  He 
may  have  studied  it  over  till  he  can  repeat  it  glibly 
from  memory,  and  even  give  the  equivalents  of  the 
different  denominations  in  terms  of  the  others,  but  the 
essential  question  of  whether,  in  all  this  memorizing, 
the  pupil's  understanding  is  thoroughly  reached,  can 
be  determined  only  by  testing  his  knowledge  of  what 
he  knows  of  the  subject. 

Upon  the  other  hand,  if  we  approach  this  "  table " 
from  the  objective  standpoint,  we  are  struck  with  the 
simplicity  as  well  as  with  the  superiority  of  the  method. 
Before  the  pupil  studies  the  "  table,"  let  him  be  fur- 
nished with  a  gill,  pint,  quart,  half -gallon,  and  a  gallon 
measure,  and  a  bushel  of  sand  or  a  bucket  of  water, 
and  then  put  to  filling  these  different  measures,  first 
filling  the  pint  cup  by  using  the  gill  measure,  emptying 


1G2    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

the  pint  into  the  quart  measure,  the  quart  measure  into 
the  half -gallon  measure,  and  so  on.  After  the  gallon 
measure  is  filled  it  may  be  measured  by  each  of  the  other 
measures,  and  thus,  following  out  the  philosophy  in 
knowing  one  thing  and  comparing  others  with  it,  definite 
knowledge  is  obtained.     The  pupils  literally  do  the  table. 

There  is  no  question  as  to  the  superiority  of  this 
method  over  the  memorizing  one. 

To  learn  the  "  Table  of  Long  or  Linear  Measure," 
the  pupil,  with  "  foot-rule,  yard-stick,  or  tape-line,"  is 
put  to  measuring  and  reporting  results,  and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  this  is  the  only  sensible  way  to  learn 
this  or  any  other  table  to  be  used  in  measuring  any 
substance  whatever. 

From  the  first  lessons  in  numbers  the  little  child 
should  be  trained  to  deal  with  fractional  numbers  in 
their  simple  forms  just  as  he  is  with  integral  numbers, 
the  idea  of  fractions  having  been  first  obtained  by  an  ex- 
amination of  divided  objects,  following  the  same  method 
as  the  one  indicated  in  doing  the  "  tables."  Apples  di- 
vided into  halves,  thirds,  fourths,  etc.,  furnish  excellent 
illustrations.  It  is  better  for  the  children  to  make  the 
divisions.  The  order  is :  the  object  as  a  whole ;  sec- 
ondly, the  divided  object ;  thirdly,  the  names  of  the 
parts  ;  fourthly,  the  symbol  placed  on  the  board  or  slate 
that  represents  the  parts;  fifthly,  uniting  the  parts 
again  into  one  wThole  ;  lastly,  applications. 

All  arithmetical  problems  in  the  elementary  and 
advanced  grades  should  partake  largely  of  a  business 
character ;  but  vigorous  drills  on  the  fundamental  rules 
must  never  be  relaxed. 

Many  abstract  exercises  may  give  celerity  in  ma- 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.  163 

nipulating  figures,  but  the  thinking  faculties  are  not 
developed.  Processes  without  thought  have  but  slight 
educational  value.  Repeating  abstract  operations  in  a 
dull  lifeless  manner,  day  after  day,  in  the  rules  of  arith- 
metic is  a  stultifying  process,  for,  when  the  pupil  once 
learns  that  7  X  9  =  63,  or  9  X  7  =  63,  repeating  these 
operations  ten  thousand  times  will  give  no  additional 
information.     All  work  should  be  promptly  done. 

MENTAL    OB   INTELLECTUAL    ARITHMETIC 

deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice.  It  is  pre-emi- 
nently the  logic  of  the  common  branches,  and  if  taught 
at  the  proper  time  is  productive  of  great  good.  Now, 
all  arithmetic  is  mental  in  this,  that  it  requires,  or  should 
require,  some  effort  of  the  mind  to  think  out  the  method 
of  the  solution ;  and,  furthermore,  so-called  practical 
arithmetic  should  always  precede  the  mental  arithmetic 
in  a  course  of  instruction.  Mental  arithmetic  is  more 
abstract  than  practical  arithmetic ;  hence  it  should  fol- 
low the  latter  in  the  earlier  years  of  instruction,  and, 
later  on,  both  may  be  pursued  simultaneously. 

When  mental. arithmetic  is  pursued  as  a  separate 
and  an  independent  study,  the  following  order  of  pre- 
senting and  teaching  the  subject  is  recommended  as 
one  that  calls  into  exercise  the  greatest  number  of  the 
intellectual  faculties,  to  wit : 

The  teacher  will  read  or  state  the  problem  once, 
distinctly;  the  pupils  will  give  the  answer,  indicated 
by  raising  hands;  the  next  step,  a  pupil,  or  pupils,  re- 
produce the  question ;  then  the  analysis  ;  and,  lastly,  the 
conclusion.  Long,  tedious  analyses  are  to  be  avoided 
as  a  noxious  pestilence. 


164:    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 


Teaching  Arithmetic. 

I.  Teacher. 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  subject. 

2.  Love  of  the  work. 

3.  Aptitude  to  teach. 

4.  Teach  one  thing  at  a  time. 

II.  Beginners. 

1.  Need  slates,  pencils,  etc. 

2.  Should  be  taught  to  observe  and  to  think. 

3.  To  express  thoughts  by  symbols. 

III.  Primary  Methods. 

1.  Principles  and  fundamental  processes. 

2.  Fractions. 

3.  Denominate  numbers,  etc. 

IV.  Oral  and  Written. 

1.  Tables,  etc. 

2.  Business  forms. 

3.  Applications. 

V.  Mental  Arithmetic— Steps. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HEALTH   AND   HYGIENE. 

The  farmer  plants  corn  in  May  or  June,  when  the 
ground  is  warm.  Should  he  do  so  in  December  or  Jan- 
uary, the  corn  would  not  grow.  Should  he  leave  the 
old  stalks  standing  in  the  field,  and  begin  to  cultivate 
them  in  the  warm  days  of  spring,  no  life  would  return 
to  them  ;  they  are  dead.  The  stalk  of  corn  was  devel- 
oped from  a  germ  once  imbedded  in  the  kernel  of  the 
grain.  With  moisture  from  the  earth,  and  heat  from 
the  sun,  the  life  within  the  kernel  manifested  itself  in 
what  we  call  the  shoot,  which  came  to  the  top  of  the 
ground,  grew  upward,  forming  the  stalk,  and  sent  roots 
downward  into  the  earth.  During  the  period  of  its 
growth  the  farmer  cultivated  it,  and  in  the  fall  there 
came  a  full  ear,  perfect,  mature,  ready  for  use. 

The  growth  of  corn  is  symbolical  of  the  growth  of 
the  child  from  infancy  to  old  age.  If  the  corn  is  not 
properly  cultivated,  no  ear  is  formed,  and  there  is  no 
kernel  for  use  as  food,  or  for  the  next  year's  planting. 
So  it  is  with  the  child  if  he  grows  up  w-ithout  the  in- 
fluences and  training  which  gradually  build  up  charac- 
ter and  perfect  the  individual. 

Every  human  being  has  two  lives — the  mental  life 


166    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

and  the  physical  life.  It  is  of  the  latter  I  shall  speak 
at  present ;  not,  however,  to  discuss  at  length  the  anato- 
my and  physiology  of  the  parts  of  the  body,  or  to  enter 
upon  the  subject  of  comparative  physiology.  Accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  education,  we  should  begin 
with  that  which  the  child  can  see,  can  handle — that 
which  he  knows. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  put  a  text-book  into  the  hands  of 
school-children  when  it  bristles  with  long,  technical 
terms,  hard  to  learn  and  easy  to  forget.  Few  physicians 
can  tell  the  names  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  Even 
if  these  names  were  all  committed  to  memory,  they  are 
worth  little  in  giving  any  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
In  talking  about  these  things,  especially  to  children,  it 
seems  better  to  describe  them  by  pointing  out  their 
uses. 

For  the  purpose  of  classifying  the  subject  under 
discussion,  we  shall  consider  the  body  as  composed  of 
three  great  systems:  the  blood-producing,  the  blood- 
circulating,  and  the  nervous  systems.  The  first  pre- 
pares the  food  for  use  by  converting  the  nutritive  por- 
tions into  such  forms  as  can  enter  the  blood.  Then  the 
circulatory  system  carries  the  blood  containing  these 
nutritive  particles  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  gathers  Tip 
waste  matter  on  the  way,  and  takes  it  to  the  lungs.  In 
the  lungs  it  meets  the  inspired  air,  from  which  it  takes 
the  purifying  oxygen,  giving  in  return  the  impurities 
which  pass  off  with  the  expired  air  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonic acid. 

Growth  is  a  law  of  our  being.  "We  grow  mentally 
and  we  grow  physically. 

To  grow,  the  body  must  have  food,  which  includes 


HEALTH   AND  HYGIENE.  167 

what  we  eat  and  what  we  drink.  The  body  is  sustained 
by  proper  food,  pure  air,  exercise,  rest,  and  sleep.  But 
the  quantity  and  quality  must  be  taken  into  account  and 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  system.  If  you  take 
a  young  colt  and  ride  it  too  much,  it  will  become 
"  sway-backed  "  ;  if  a  little  child  is  induced  to  walk  be- 
fore its  bones  are  strong  enough  to  support  its  weight, 
it  will  grow  "  bow-legged."  It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
overload  children  in  any  way.  If  they  have  too  many 
studies  or  too  long  lessons  in  school,  their  minds  suffer ; 
if  their  bodies  are  overburdened,  they  become  de- 
formed. 

So  of  the  stomach,  which  is  the  principal  digestive 
organ  ;  if  it  is  overloaded  with  food,  it  can  not  proper- 
ly prepare  it  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body. 

Pressure  upon  any  of  the  vital  organs,  or  upon  the 
nerves,  is  injurious  to  health. 

The  amount  of  air  required  by  each  child  or  older 
person  varies  from  1,000  to  2,000  cubic  feet  every  hour, 
the  first  amount  named  being  perhaps  sufficient  for 
small  children.  Suppose  you  are  in  a  room  60  feet 
long,  25  feet  wide,  and  15  feet  high,  containing  just 
22,500  cubic  feet  of  space,  occupied  by  80  persons, 
each  requiring  2,000  cubic  feet  of  air  every  hour. 
Making  no  allowance  for  the  space  occupied  by  these 
eighty  persons  and  the  furniture  of  the  room,  all  the  air 
in  the  room  would  be  spoiled  in  about  eight  minutes — 
that  is,  the  carbonic-acid  gas  passing  off  from  the  lungs 
would  in  that  time  render  all  the  air  in  the  room  im- 
pure, unfit  to  breathe  again.  Besides,  there  is  an  in- 
sensible perspiration  passing  off  from  the  body  in  all 
directions,  adding  to  the  impurity  in  the  air.     It  is  by 


168    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

such  means  that  persons  who  are  sick  communicate 
contagion.  There  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  germ,  which 
goes  floating  off  into  the  air  and  communicating  disease. 

Since  the  air  becomes  so  rapidly  vitiated,  the  venti- 
lation of  school-rooms  is  a  question  of  grave  importance, 
but  one  which  teachers  too  often  negJect,  even  after  they 
have  been  talked  to  about  it  day  after  day,  week  after 
week,  month  after  month,  and  almost  year  after  year. 
Even  with  so-called  self-registers,  the  air  is  frequently 
allowed  to  become  impure.  The  necessity  of  attention 
becomes  even  more  apparent  when  we  consider  the  de- 
pendence of  the  health  of  the  entire  body  upon  the 
perfect  mutual  relations  between  circulation  and  respi- 
ration, and  the  quality  of  the  supplies  furnished;  of 
nutriment  for  distribution  to  all  parts  of  the  body  by 
means  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  of  air  to  the 
lungs  for  the  purification  of  the  blood  as  it  passes 
through  them  on  its  way  to  the  heart,  there  to  gather 
fresh  impetus  for  another  journey  as  distributor  of  life- 
giving,  and  collector  of  dead,  particles.  The  blood  dis- 
tributes its  supplies  for  assimilation  to  the  needs  of  the 
body,  and  acts  as  scavenger ;  but  all  this  were  vain  did 
not  the  respiratory  organs  bring  the  oxygen  in  to  drive 
out  the  carbonic  acid,  the  poisonous  product  of  decay. 
If  ventilation  is  neglected,  this  poison  remains  in  the 
blood  to  unite  with  freshly  collected  poison,  and  disease 
is  the  result,  then  suffering — death. 

Teachers  have  no  right  to-be  careless  in  regard  to 
this  matter.  Carelessness  is  criminality,  and  criminality 
means  death.  In  almost  every  school-room  there  is 
some  way  to  get  the  bad  air  out.  Open  door  and  win- 
dows, if  no  other  way,  and  let  the  children  run  out  and 


HEALTH  AND  HYGIEXE.  169 

play,  and  let  in  pure  air.  If  in  doubt  about  the  purity 
of  the  air  in  the  room,  step  outside,  inhale  a  few  whiffs, 
then  go  into  the  school-room,  and  the  contrast  will  tell 
the  tale.     Try  it  often.     Result — astonishing! 

EXEECISE. 

We  are  told  by  those  men  who  go  away  into  the 
arctic  regions  that  young  seals  are  seen  playing  on  the 
cakes  of  ice  during  the  coldest  days.  It  is  natural  for 
the  young  of  all  animals  to  play,  and  it  is  just  as  nat- 
ural for  a  young  child  to  play  if  it  is  in  good  health. 
It  needs  exercise,  and  needs  it  often.  Children  of 
larger  growth  need  it  too  ;  it  is  one  of  the  elements  of 
life.  If  there  are  any  persons  so  unfortunate  as  to  be 
born  rich  enough  to  live  without  work,  they  are  the 
ones  who  ought  to  practice  in  a  gymnasium,  so  as  to 
get  the  needed  amount  of  physical  exercise.  It  is  an 
old  saying  that  u  all  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a 
dull  boy."  The  Greeks  said  that  "a  bow  kept  always 
strung  would  not  shoot."  Hence  the  bow  at  times 
must  be  relaxed,  and  the  human  body  must  have  relaxa- 
tion after  labor.  If  the  labor  is  mental,  the  mind  must 
rest  and  the  body  have  exercise.  During  study  there  is 
a  greater  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain,  and  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  to  other  parts  of  the  body.  Exercise  prop- 
erly taken  restores  the  equilibrium  by  bringing  action 
to  those  parts  of  the  body  which  have  been  at  rest. 

TEMPEEAMENTS. 

There  are  different  physiological  conditions  and  dif- 
ferent mental  characteristics.  Suppose,  for  illustration, 
we  compare  two  men  whom  we  know.     One  of  them  is 


170    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

a  perfect  specimen  of  manhood,  well  rounded,  tall  and 
healthy ;  there  is  another,  sharp,  angular.  The  contrast 
between  them  is  very  striking.  The  first  shows  a  com- 
bination of  the  bilious,  nervous,  and  vital  temperaments. 
How  do  we  know  it  ?  The  second  is  of  a  nervous- 
bilious  temperament.  The  first  has  smootli  hands,  with 
round,  tapering  fingers ;  the  other  has  angular  hands, 
with  knotted,  bony  fingers.  The  muscles  of  the  first  are 
well  developed;  the  other  is  far  inferior  in  muscular 
development,  and  needs  an  active  out-door  life  to  give 
him  strength  of  body.  Evidently  they  should  follow 
different  occupations.  Different  temperaments  need 
different  treatment ;  hence,  teachers  should  6tudy  the 
temperaments  of  children.  There  may  be  one  little 
boy  who  can  lift  fifty  pounds,  but  should  we  argue  from 
that  that  another  who  weighs  as  much  can  lift  the  same 
weight  ?  Suppose  we  say  to  all  the  children  in  a  school- 
room, regardless  of  their  temperaments  and  different 
degrees  of  strength,  "  You  must  lift  that  fifty-pound 
weight."  All  are  absurdly  put  to  lifting  the  same  thing 
in  the  same  way,  without  regard  to  their  ability. 

There  is  a  difference  between  trees.  Compare  the 
basswood-tree  with  the  hickory :  one  is  easily  broken,  and 
the  other  can  be  bent  down  without  breaking,  spring- 
ing back  again  of  itself.  It  is  just  so  with  children. 
A  child  who  has  a  nervous  temperament  does  not  need 
to  be  goaded  to  work,  but  a  boy  of  a  bilious  tempera- 
ment may  be  so  insensible  that  even  a  whip  would  not 
bring  him  into  the  line  of  march.  A  teacher  who  can 
understand  the  temperament  of  a  child  as  soon  as  she 
sees  it  will  be  the  successful  teacher.  A  child  who  has 
a  nervous   temperament  will   learn   rapidly,  and  may 


HEALTH   AND   HYGIENE.  171 

soon  distance  the  others.  Such  as  these  should  usually 
be  restrained,  and  never  driven.  Here  is  a  case  in  point : 
A  little  girl  attending  a  school  had  a  precocious  mind, 
but  a  slight,  frail  body.  Her  mother  was  proud  of  her 
— anxious  to  display  her  ability.  To  the  mother  the 
superintendent  said:  "You  are  killing  that  child  by 
pushing  her  too  rapidly  forward ;  let  her  play  out-of- 
doors."  The  mother  did  not  believe  him,  but  urged  the 
child  onward  in  her  studies,  and  with  the  predicted  re- 
sult of  death. 

Every  teacher  should  read  what  has  been  written 
by  the  best  authors  on  temperaments,  and  study  human 
nature  as  it  is,  mind  and  body  together.  We  have 
studied  the  mind  without  the  body,  and  the  body  with 
the  elements  composing  it,  but  there  is  a  mutual  de- 
pendence enabling  us  to  judge  each  in  some  measure 
by  the  manifestation  of  the  other.  In  a  person  having 
sharp,  angular  features,  and  a  large,  broad  forehead,  the 
nervous  temperament  predominates ;  while  another  with 
a  full,  plump  body,  a  round  figure,  and  agreeable  feat- 
ures, is  the  possessor  of  the  vital  temperament.  He  has 
a  large,  full  chest,  breathing-room  for  his  lungs,  and  his 
other  vital  organs  are  well  developed.  There  is  another, 
perhaps,  with  a  gaunt,  angular  physiognomy,  sharp  feat- 
ures, large  bones  and  joints,  and  a  yellowish  color  of 
the  skin,  with  distant,  hollow-looking  eyes :  he  is  of  the 
"  bilious  "  or  "  frame-work  "  temperament. 

Teachers,  working  among  children,  ought  to  manage 
each  child  according  to  his  temperament.  Not  forget- 
ting, however,  that  pure  air,  good  food,  and  cleanliness 
are  needed  by  all.     'Tis  true,  the  bath  is  not  a  feature 

of  school-room  work,  but  the  teacher  must  impress  its 
12 


172    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

importance  upon  the  minds  of  all  pupils.  This  applies 
to  day-schools.  In  boarding-schools  the  teachers  have 
the  entire  charge,  and  are  in  duty  bound  to  attend  to 
this  matter. 

Physiology  teaches  that,  in  the  form  of  insensible 
perspiration,  about  five  eighths  of  everything  we  take 
into  the  body  passes  off  through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
For  this  reason  clothing  which  is  worn  next  to  the  body 
during  the  day  should  not  be  worn  at  night,  and  that 
worn  at  night  should  be  well  aired  during  the  day. 
Our  beds,  too,  should  be  thoroughly  aired  during  the 
day,  and  the  sleeping-rooms  carefully  ventilated. 

Health  and  Hygiene — Body. 


Parts. 

Bones  and  joints. 
Digestive  organs. 
Nervous  system. 

Muscles. 

Circulative  system, 
Skin. 

Support. 

Food. 
Exercise. 

Air. 

Rest  and  sleep. 

Care. 

Clothing. 

Amount  of  air. 

Hygiene  of  the  school-house. 

Kinds  of  food. 

Ventilation. 

Bathing. 

CHAPTER  XIY. 

ONLY   A    BOY. 

aA  very  peculiar  boy,  and  the  teacher  does  not  un- 
derstand him,"  is  the  confiding  mother's  verdict  nine 
times  out  of  ten.  Teachers,  have  you  not  already  formed 
ihe  acquaintance  of  the  "  peculiar  boy "  as  interpreted 
by  his  affectionate  but  misguided  mother  ?  Have  you 
not  analyzed  the  ingredients  of  this  "peculiar  boy's 
mind,"  and  tested  them  in  the  educational  balance? 
Have  you  not  studied  his  mental  characteristics  and 
traced  each  one  to  its  most  secret  hiding-place  i  Have 
you  not  mapped  every  emotion,  affection,  and  desire, 
then  divided  and  subdivided,  and  separated  the  true 
from  the  false,  and  ascertained  by  so  doing  that  "  this 
peculiar  boy  "  had  much  in  common  with  other  boys  ? 
Did  you  take  "  this  peculiar  boy  "  mentally  to  pieces,  and 
find  out  by  an  examination  of  his  intellectual  and  moral 
mechanism  that  he  was  a  well-contrived  and  well-made 
human  machine,  capable  of  doing  good  work  if  only 
properly  regulated  and  directed  ? 

But  here  comes  the  boy  himself.  He  stands  before 
us.  He  knows  that  he  is  "  a  peculiar  boy."  His  mother 
has  said  so  a  thousand  times,  and  he  has  heard  her 
every  time.     She  ascribes   his  singular  disposition  to 


174    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

changes  in  the  weather  and  other  like  occult  influences, 
all  of  which  speculations  assist  the  boy  in  playing  a 
dual  existence,  and  changing  from  one  to  the  other  so 
readily  that  his  mother  is  unable  to  detect  the  decep- 
tion. 

I  have  yet  to  see  the  "  peculiar  boy  "  free  from  de- 
ception. Peculiarity — or  his  peculiarity — may  assume 
a  thousand  different  forms  of  mind  and  body.  Not 
long  since  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  watching  a  "pecul- 
iar boy "  for  fifteen  minutes  while  his  grown  sister  ex- 
plained to  the  teacher  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  this 
"peculiar  boy,"  the  chief  of  which  was  that  he  was 
"unmanageable  at  home,  and  they  could  do  nothing 
with  him " ;  but  she  insisted  that  the  teacher  should 
control  him  without  punishing  him  for  offenses  he 
might  commit  during  school  hours.  This  boy  had  seen 
the  snows  of  ten  winters,  and,  while  his  sister  proceeded 
to  enlighten  the  meek  and  patient  teacher,  the  "  pecul- 
iar boy  "  indulged  in  the  following  innocent  sports :  1. 
He  struck  a  boy  near  him  in  the  side  with  a  slate.  2. 
He  crawled  around  on  the  floor  under  his  desk  hunting 
for  a  pin  that  he  had  dropped  the  day  before.  3. 
While  on  the  floor  he  put  his  left  foot  above  his  desk 
and  executed  a  half-dozen  kicking  motions  with  that 
same  foot,  pretending,  as  he  said,  that  "  his  foot  was 
asleep,  and  he  wanted  to  wake  it."  4.  Next  he  reached 
across  the  aisle  and  jerked  a  boy's  boot-strap.  He  had 
not  yet  found  the  pin.  5.  He  lay  flat  under  his  desk 
and  inspected  in  a  very  deliberate  manner  a  joint  in  the 
floor.  Well  satisfied  with  the  result  of  his  floor  observa- 
tions, he  crawled  into  the  aisle,  took  a  general  survey 
of  the  surroundings,  and  then  arose,  half -bent,  and  tick- 


ONLY  A  BOY.  175 

led  a  boy's  neck  with  a  scrap  of  paper.  6.  A  little  girl 
looked  at  him,  and  he  pulled  her  hair  to  teach  her  a 
practical  lesson.  7.  He  now  took  his  seat,  and,  in  doing 
so,  cast  furtive  glances  and  winked  at  the  pupils  whose 
eyes  turned  toward  him.  8.  In  less  than  a  minute  he 
was  kicking  a  boy  who  sat  directly  in  front  of  him,  and, 
when  the  boy  complained,  he  declared  that  he  "  hadn't 
touched  the  boy." 

Treatment.  —  The  above  is  only  one  instance  of 
many  that  have  fallen  under  my  observation.  Yet  the 
question  for  the  teacher  to  decide  is  what  to  do  with 
such  cases  ?  Shall  the  boy  be  turned  out  of  school  be- 
cause his  influence  contaminates  others  and  he  is  far  be- 
yond the  limit  of  parental  control  ?  Before  the  teacher 
arrives  at  a  conclusion,  all  the  circumstances  connected 
with  the  boy's  history  should  be  carefully  and  conscien- 
tiously weighed. 

If  the  teacher  sees  a  chance  to  turn  "  his  peculiari- 
ties "  to  a  good  account,  he  will  not  be  slow  to  do  so ; 
but,  if  no  favorable  conditions  are  present,  there  is  only 
one  course  for  the  teacher  to  pursue,  and  that  is  to  send 
the  intractable  child  to  his  parents. 

It  is  a  mistaken  policy  for  school  authorities  to  per- 
mit pupils  to  remain  in  school  when  they  forfeit  every 
right  that  is  guaranteed  by  the  laws  of  the  State.  Any 
citizen  who  behaves  himself  is  entitled  to  the  full  en- 
joyment of  all  those  absolute  and  acquired  rights  given 
by  the  Creator  and  by  statutory  enactments  for  his  hap- 
piness and  general  prosperity,  but  with  this  proviso, 
that  he  will  not  abuse  the  great  boon  conferred,  other- 
wise he  loses  all. 

The  "peculiar  boy's   disposition"  is  a  home-made 


176    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

article,  and  badly  spoiled  in  the  manufacture.  Sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  of  disorder,  fitfulness,  and 
fickleness,  perhaps  tainted  with  deception  and  other 
vices,  he  comes  to  school  not  to  learn  obedience,  but  to 
do  as  he  pleases  without  restraint.  When  the  teacher 
has  exhausted  all  available  resources,  it  is  time  to  notify 
parents  and  school  authorities  that  the  boy's  presence 
can  not  be  tolerated  longer  in  the  school-room  unless 
there  is  a  very  sudden  conversion. 

Remark. — I  am  not  now  speaking  of  those  defects 
of  the  mind  or  of  the  body  which  render  the  child  unfit 
to  be  in  school. 

THE   PETTED   AND   SPOILED   BOY. 

This  specimen  of  the  human  species  has  not  so 
many  ailments  as  the  "  peculiar  boy."  His  case  is  dif- 
ferent, symptoms  are  not  the  same,  and  the  treatment 
is  also  dissimilar.  Unless  everything  goes  to  suit  his 
fancy,  he  is  seen  with  a  budding  cry  or  a  sprouting 
whimper  on  his  face.  Crying  for  things  or  crying 
because  he  can  not  have  his  own  way,  the  acquired 
condition  of  his  earthly  existence. 

The  little  story  of  "  Mother,  I  want  a  piece  of  cake," 
well  expresses  the  visible  co-efficient  of  this  boy's  face. 
Right  back  of  him  at  home  is  a  weak-minded  father  or 
mother ;  probably  both  are  afflicted  with  this  complaint. 
The  boy  being  shrewd  enough  to  understand  their  weak- 
ness, and  having  found  out  that  crying  is  the  most  ef- 
fective plea  to  secure  any  object  or  the  gratification  of 
any  whim  which  he  fancies,  does  not  hesitate  to  employ 
his  skill  to  aid  him  in  the  furtherance  of  his  wishes. 
Having  managed  his  parents,  his  next  effort  is  to  cap* 


ONLY  A  BOY,  177 

ture  the  teacher  by  the  same  means.  Of  course,  an 
experienced  teacher  will  see  through  the  situation  at  a 
glance,  and  will  not  be  imposed  upon,  although  the  boy 
may  be  somewhat  re-enforced  by  one  or  both  his  par- 
ents, who,  by  misguided  zeal  and  moral  weakness,  do 
not  clearly  understand  the  nature  of  their  own  child 
and  just  how  to  treat  him.  A  vacillating  will-power 
and  a  perverse  blindness  to  childish  willfulness  and  de- 
ception are  serious  obstacles  to  the  teacher's  progress 
in  correcting  the  faults  of  the  "petted  and  spoiled 
child."  But  the  child  is  in  school.  He  is  spoiled. 
The  teacher  knows  it,  and  the  pupils  are  not  ignorant 
of  it  either.  How  can  he  be  most  successfully  treated  ? 
Here,  indeed,  is  a  school  problem !  To  give  an  answer, 
let  us  suppose  a  hypothetical  case.  The  boy  is  a  deli- 
cate little  fellow  physically ;  large  blue  eyes,  a  high, 
full  forehead,  flaxen  hair,  a  slender  frame,  a  milky  com- 
plexion produced  from  eating  rich  and  highly  seasoned 
indigestible  food,  a  nervous  temperament,  with  only  a 
slight  admixture  with  the  motive  and  vital  tempera- 
ments. Picture  him  before  you  as  the  "petted  and 
spoiled  boy  " ! 

As  I  take  it,  the  first  step  is  to  gain  this  child's  con- 
fidence. A  dog  knows  how  to  approach  a  stranger  and 
win  his  kindness.  There  is  some  avenue  open  to  this 
child's  better  nature.  A  little  judicious  digging  and 
spading  around  will  enable  the  teacher  to  find  it.  Make 
no  mistakes,  but  strike  the  right  lead  at  first.  Teacher, 
don't  dig  till  you  are  sure,  and  you  will  capture  him. 
He  is  taken  as  the  farmer's  wife  catches  a  mole  in  the 
garden.  She  waits  and  watches  till  the  mole  begins  to 
dig  near  the  top  of  the  ground ;  then  she  digs  with 


178    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

the  spade  just  ahead  of  the  mole,  and  instantly  just  be- 
hind him,  tossing  him  out  on  top  of  the  ground.  She 
never  mistakes  the  hour,  the  place,  or  the  means  to  cap- 
ture the  mole.  By  a  little  judicious  and  faithful  work 
the  teacher  can  capture  the  "  petted  and  spoiled  boy," 
and  have  him  completely  under  her  control. 

The  child  I  have  presented  is  of  such  peculiar  men- 
tal and  physical  organization  as  to  be  very  susceptible 
to  appeals  made  to  his  higher  emotional  nature  through 
his  intellectual  faculties.  Naturally,  the  child  of  the 
delicately-wrought  nervous  temperament  is  not  cruel 
and  brutal,  yet  he  may  be  sly  and  crafty.  Subdue  or 
lull  into  repose  the  vicious  tendencies  and  stimulate  the 
nobler  ones  to  increased  activity.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  excite  his  self-approbation  or  his  desire  to  have 
others — and  especially  his  teacher  and  schoolmates — 
think  well  of  him.  Whatever  influence  is  proper  should 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  him  to  move  him  in  the  line 
of  right  conduct. 

Above  all,  the  teacher  must  be  honest  with  the 
child.  No  deception  will  answer  the  purpose.  Chil- 
dren read  motives,  actions,  and  words  intuitively. 

Since  the  u  petted  and  spoiled  child  "  may  be  of  any 
temperament,  let  us  extend  our  inquiries. 

For  present  purposes  children  may  be  classified  into 
three  groups,  namely,  the  good,  the  medium,  and  the 
bad. 

The  first  group  will  give  but  little  or  no  trouble  at 
home  or  in  school.  They  behave  properly,  and  only  in 
rare  instances  is  one  of  this  class  to  be  reproved. 

But  the  middle  group,  composing  the  vast  concourse 
of  children,  is  highly  susceptible  to  good  and  bad  influ- 


ONLY  A  BOY.  179 

ences.  These  are  the  children  standing  "  on  slippery 
places."  Environments  make  or  unmake  them.  If 
started  in  the  right  direction,  and  carefully  watched  till 
habits  are  formed  and  fixed,  they  will  move  onward 
through  life  as  honorable  and  useful  members  of  society. 
When  passion  is  strong,  the  will-power  weak,  reason 
only  partially  developed,  and  the  habits  in  process  of 
formation,  then  it  is  that  the  child  needs  the  steady 
hand  of  the  teacher  to  lead  him  along  the  dangerous 
pathway. 

Through  affection  for  the  teacher  the  wayward  boy 
becomes  obedient,  and  most  cheerfully  submits  to  those 
rules  and  regulations  of  school  which  are  established  for 
his  well-being.  Without  this  spirit  of  love  he  submits 
only  from  sheer  necessity. 

The  incorrigible  or  untamed  child  is  hard  to  control ; 
but  even  the  most  vicious  always  have  some  good  traitSo 
These  traits  should  be  found  out  and  then  developed. 
The  human  face  is  always  a  true  index  of  the  character. 
Profoundly  versed  in  faces,  and  knowing  how  to  turn 
everything  to  the  best  account,  the  teacher  is  skillful 
only  in  proportion  as  he  can  change  the  natural  tenden- 
cies from  viciousness  to  uprightness.  Education  does 
not  change  the  character;  it  changes  the  direction — the 
life.  It  causes  the  individual  to  change  his  powers  from 
one  mode  of  thinking,  feeling,  and  acting  to  another. 
The  motives  are  different.  Placing  before  the  pupil  a 
better  set  of  motives,  and  letting  these  impel  him  to 
action  in  a  newer  and  higher  direction,  is  the  chief  value 
of  a  right  education. 

To  pluck  out  or  displace  a  bad  motive,  and  to  put  a 
better  one  in  its  place,  is  the  highest  duty  a  teacher  is 


180    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

ever  called  upon  to  perform.  Hunt,  therefore,  for  the 
good  qualities  in  the  child's  nature.  Develop  these, 
and  the  worst  case  of  "  petted  and  spoiled  "  may  be 
cured. 

FIDGETY    BOY. 

No  description  of  this  irritation  of  the  school-room 
is  needed.     He  is  too  well  known. 

The  first  step  is  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this  state 
of  uncontrollableness.  It  may  depend  originally  upon 
two  conditions  of  the  body,  namely,  an  inherited  nerv- 
ousness, or  from  a  large  preponderance  of  life  and  ani- 
mal spirits  in  the  system,  such  as  usually  accompany  a 
full  development  of  the  sanguine- vital  temperaments; 
or  it  may  not  be  dependent  upon  either  of  these,  but 
merely  capricious  willfulness.  In  any  event,  probe  the 
case  to  the  bottom,  and  then  base  your  action  upon  the 
result  of  your  examination. 

I  will  briefly  indicate  the  remedies  for  these  three 
distinct  types  of  "  fidgets." 

1.  Keep  cool,  and  never  become  flurried  or  excited. 
Speak  quietly,  gently,  in  the  school-room.  Thus  you 
insensibly  tone  down  the  highly  wrought  nervous  chil- 
dren under  your  tuition.  Your  influence  should  soothe, 
not  irritate,  the  delicate  children  who  are  so  susceptible 
that  every  sound  strikes  a  thousand  tense  nerves  in  their 
bodies. 

Here,  also,  is  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  teacher 
to  study  himself,  and  to  note  particularly  what  effect  he 
produces  upon  the  minds  of  his  pupils. 

2.  A  pupil  having  a  large  supply  of  blood  in  his 
body  needs  pure  air  and  out-door  exercise.  Confined 
in  a  school-room,  he  longs  to  get  out  and  to  get  away. 


ONLY  A  BOY.  Igl 

Nature  indicates  that  he  should  run  around.     Let  him  do 
something  for  you.    Send  him  on  errands.     Such  exercise 
will  purify  his  blood,  and  will  keep  him  out  of  mischief. 
Such  pupils  need  work-shops  as  well  as  study-rooms. 
3.  The  last  case  is  managed  easily.    Don't  permit  it ! 

THE    SULLEN    BOY. 

The  infant  is  born  into  the  world  with  capabilities 
that  may  be  developed.  Everything  he  will  ever  know 
must  be  learned.  His  tendencies,  or  the  "  bent  of  his 
mind,"  are  to  be  guided  and  directed.  Early  in  life  the 
child  is  not  supposed  to  know  in  all  cases  what  is  best 
for  him  to  do  or  not  to  do.  Experience  teaches  lessons 
after  many  failures.  Proper  education  is  just  as  need- 
ful for  the  mind  as  food,  air,  clothing,  and  exercise  are 
for  the  body.  To  educate  is,  in  one  sense,  to  put  the 
mind  in  that  condition  so  that  it  may  gather  knowledge, 
arrange  it,  classify  it,  and  have  it  ready  for  use ;  and  the 
effort  put  forth  in  getting  knowledge  gives  additional 
power  and  skill  to  overcome  other  difficulties. 

The  sullen  or  stubborn  boy  is  sometimes  met  with 
in  the  school-room. 

Symptoms.  —  For  some  reason  the  pupil  takes  it 
into  his  head  that  he  will  not  do  anything  the  teacher 
requests  him  to  do.  When  spoken  to,  he  replies  fre- 
quently by  rolling  his  eyes  in  an  indifferent  sort  of  a 
way  about  the  school-room.  When  requested  to  move, 
he  sits  still  in  dogged  silence.  If  threatened,  he  is 
equally  indifferent.  Threats  and  coaxing  have  precisely 
the  same  effect — sublime  and  haughty  contempt !  It  is 
no  more  nor  less  than  his  will-power  acting  through 
stubbornness  in  opposition  to  the  teacher's  will. 


182    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

Remedial  Agents. — There  are  some  old-fashioned 
teachers  who  claim  that  a  keen,  tough  switch  possesses 
excellent  virtues  in  the  hands  of  an  able-bodied  teacher 
on  such  occasions.  In  a  very  few  cases  it  may  do  good, 
but  let  the  switch  be  used  very  sparingly. 

An  Anecdote. — On  one  occasion  a  miss  of  fifteen 
flatly  refused  to  recite  her  lesson  or  answer  any  question 
which  her  teacher  asked  her. 

She  was  excused  and  took  her  seat.  At  the  next 
recitation  she  sat  quietly,  the  teacher  paying  no  atten- 
tion to  her  whatever.  Thus  the  day  wore  away.  Next 
morning  she  came  to  school  in  due  time,  meanwhile 
chatting  lively  with  her  classmates.  School  was  called. 
At  the  proper  time  she  took  her  place  with  her  class, 
ready  for  recitation.  The  teacher  kindly  and  pleasantly 
informed  her  that,  till  she  could  act  in  a  becoming  man- 
ner, she  would  not  recite  to  him,  and,  since  she  had 
voluntarily  chosen  to  deprive  herself  of  the  privileges  of 
school,  the  proper  place  for  her  would  be  at  home  ;  she 
was  therefore  excused.  But  he  added  that,  if  at  any 
time  she  concluded  to  comply  with  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations of  the  school,  she  might  return.  Three  hours 
later  she  came  back.     The  teacher  had  conquered. 

Time  I  regard  as  the  essential  element  in  outgener- 
aling the  "  sullen  boy."  When  the  question  of  suprem- 
acy of  will-power  is  once  decided,  the  question  is  settled. 

THE    FIGHTING   AND    SWEARING   BOY. 

Nearly  all  boys  will  fight  and  swear.  There  are  few 
exceptions.  Of  course,  a  boy  may  fight  in  self-defense, 
or  to  protect  another  person ;  or,  under  intense  excite- 
ment, he  may  use  language  more  emphatic  than  refined : 


ONLY  A  BOY.  183 

it  is  not  my  purpose  to  discuss  rare  and  exceptional 
cases. 

The  right  to  protect  one's  self  in  his  person,  reputa- 
tion, and  property,  is  recognized  as  an  instinct  of  our 
nature,  and  all  persons  act  upon  this  right,  with  the 
exception  of  those  who  advocate  the  non-resistance 
doctrine. 

But  the  "  fighting  and  swearing  boy "  is  an  intol- 
erable nuisance  in  the  school.  As  a  disturber  of  the 
peace  he  has  few  equals  and  no  superiors.  He  takes 
special  delight  in  creating  disturbances,  and  in  getting 
others  into  fights  and  broils,  and  then  in  glorying  in 
their  discomfiture.  One  noisy,  fighting,  swearing  boy 
will  contaminate  an  entire  school,  and  nullify  the  teach- 
er's efforts,  unless  some  plan  is  adopted  whereby  his 
course  of  conduct  is  turned  into  better  channels. 

Whenever  the  teacher  finds  such  a  case  in  school, 
there  should  be  no  waste  of  time  in  setting  about  a 
method  of  correcting  him.  If  his  instincts  are  low  and 
brutal,  and  through  force  of  habit  at  home  he  has  ac- 
quired a  quarrelsome  and  fighting  disposition,  there  is 
no  higher  element  in  his  nature  to  appeal  to  than  that 
of  overcoming  physical  force  with  physical  force.  It  is 
the  same  principle  that  enables  Conklin  to  tame  and 
subdue  the  lion.  A  combination  of  mind  and  muscle 
exercising  sway  over  a  lower  order  of  mind  may  be  the 
means  of  elevating  the  latter ;  yet  the  motives  are  cer- 
tainly not  those  of  the  nobler  kind. 

Frequently  it  happens  that  the  "  fighting  boy  "  has 
a  high  sense  of  honor,  and,  having  established  his  repu- 
tation as  a  pugilist,  he  is  exceedingly  desirous  of  main- 
taining the  title,  at  no  little  personal  sacrifice.     If  the 


184    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

boy  be  of  such  a  character,  an  appeal  to  his  manhood  is 
perhaps  the  most  effectual  way  of  reaching  him,  and 
thereby  reforming  his  habits.  Wrong  notions  of  true 
bravery  have  done  much  to  foster  fighting,  and  to  give 
it  au  air  of  respectability  in  many  sections  of  our 
country. 

The  toleration  of  prize-fighting  and  pugilistic  exhibi- 
tions generally,  and  the  greediness  with  which  accounts 
of  such  matters  are  devoured  by  no  small  portion  of  the 
public,  help  to  foster  the  fighting  spirit  among  school- 
boys. Doubtless  the  statement  is  measurably  true  that 
even  the  most  highly  enlightened  and  civilized  com- 
munities still  retain  many  traces  of  barbarism.  The 
English,  Irish,  and  a  very  large  portion  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, have  combativeness  and  destructiveness  largely 
developed,  and  they  are  too  frequently  impelled  to  work 
off  this  superfluous  energy  through  their  fists  and  feet. 

By  his  influence,  inculcating  higher  notions  of  life 
and  the  dignity  of  true  manhood,  and  the  brutal  and 
disgraceful  features  connected  with  fighting,  the  teacher 
can  do  much  toward  creating  a  public  sentiment  in  a 
community  against  fighting. 

"  That  man  only  is  truly  brave  who  fears  nothing 
so  much  as  doing  a  shameful  action,  and  that  dares 
resolutely  and  undauntedly  go  where  his  duty,  how 
dangerous  soever  it  is,  may  call  him." 

By  reference  to  noble  deeds  and  virtuous  actions, 
placing  higher  incentives  before  the  minds  of  children, 
they  may  be  taught  to  emulate  the  true,  the  good,  and 
the  honorable  of  earth.  Hence,  by  strong,  earnest,  hon- 
est, continuous  effort,  the  teacher  may  change,  in  almost 
every  instance,  "  the  fighting  and  swearing  boy  "  into 


ONLY  A  BOY.  185 

a  quiet,  orderly,  and  industrious  pupil.  Precept,  prac- 
tice, correct  judgment  properly  applied,  will  effect  more 
toward  turning  the  baser  metal  into  gold  than  the 
brightest  visions  of  the  alchemist's  dreams. 

THE   LAZY   BOY. 

There  is  a  prevailing  opinion  that  no  little  child  is 
lazy,  and,  as  an  evidence  of  this  fact,  the  activity  and 
sportiveness  of  all  young  animals  are  referred  to  as  con- 
firmatory of  this  belief.  While  it  is  admitted,  and  with 
a  considerable  degree  of  plausibility  likewise,  that 
healthy  young  animals  really  enjoy  themselves  in  vari- 
ous ways,  yet  I  am  not  fully  convinced,  from  all  the 
evidence  now  before  me,  that  the  analogy  between  ani- 
mals and  children  will  bear  close  and  impartial  investi- 
gation. Be  that  matter  as  it  may,  if  all  young  children 
are  not  lazy,  a  considerable  number  "  are  born  into  the 
world  with  an  astonishing  amount  of  tiredness  fastened 
upon  them." 

Laziness  is  a  disinclination  to  work,  either  with  the 
mind  or  body,  and  some  cases  of  it — whether  hereditary 
or  acquired,  it  matters  not — are  actually  found  in  school. 
Upon  physiological  conditions,  it  is  readily  understood 
how  and  why  a  rapidly  growing  child  may  be  lazy. 
Perhaps  it  requires  all  the  vitality  which  he  possesses 
to  satisfy  the  physical  demands  of  his  system.  Lazi- 
ness, unless  it  be  a  newly  manufactured  article,  depends 
largely  upon  temperamental  conditions.  These  condi- 
tions can,  through  a  series  of  years,  be  modified,  but  not 
entirely  obliterated.  An  inquiry  should  be  made  here 
as  to  whether  the  laziness  is  primary  or  secondary : 
primary  when  it  is  inbred  and  inborn,  and  secondary 


186    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

when  it  accompanies  rapidly  growing  childhood.  The 
second  phase  passes  away  usually  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years.  The  teacher  can  do  little  with  laziness  unless  he 
goes  at  once  to  the  roots  of  the  disease.  To  tell  a  child 
that  he  is  lazy  oftentimes  does  more  harm  than  good. 

1.  Occasionally  the  school-room  feature  of  the  case 
is  relieved  by  inducing  the  child  "  to  go  to  bed  early 
and  to  sleep  nine  or  ten  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four." 

2.  A  pupil  may  appear  dull,  stupid,  and  lazy,  when 
in  reality  he  is  slow  to  apprehend  new  things,  or  it  is 
with  difficulty  that  he  can  turn  from  one  subject  to 
another.  In  this  instance  he  is  usually  classed  as  a 
"  lazy,  slow  boy." 

3.  Plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air  is  a  wonderful 
invigorator. 

4.  Light,  easily  digested,  nutritious  food  aids  mental 
activity. 

5.  Laziness,  or  dullness,  or  fatness,  can  not  be 
whipped  out  of  a  child  any  more  than  learning  can  be 
whipped  into  him. 

THE   LYING   BOY. 

All  persons  having  a  high  regard  for  truthfulness 
agree  that  it  is  better  to  speak  the  truth,  though  the 
penalty  of  death  be  incurred,  than  to  prevaricate.  The 
conflicting  motives  are  present  and  future  happiness. 

Lying  is  so  detestable  that  ancients  and  moderns  are 
unanimous  in  condemning  it. 

"  Liars  are  the  cause  of  all  the  sins  and  crimes  in 
the  world." — Epictetus. 

"  A  lie  has  no  legs,  and  can  not  stand ;  but  it  has 
wings,  and  can  fly  far  and  wide." —  Warburton. 


ONLY  A  BOY.  187 

u  Sin  has  many  tools,  but  a  lie  is  the  handle  which 
fits  them  all." — Holmes. 

u  Every  brave  man  shuns  more  than  death  the  shame 
of  lying." — Corneille. 

u  None  but  cowards  lie." — Murphy. 

"  When  first  found  in  a  lie,  talk  to  him  of  it  as  a 
strange,  monstrous  matter,  and  so  shame  him  out  of  it." 
— Locke. 

The  educator  deals  with  human  nature  just  as  he 
finds  it  in  every-day  life.  While  he  may  create  lofty 
ideals,  and  strive  to  reach  them  himself  and  to  induce 
his  pupils  to  go  as  far  or  farther,  yet  it  is  mostly  with 
commonplace  persons  that  his  life  is  spent. 

In  a  school,  as  in  a  community,  a  public  sentiment 
can  be  created,  and  that  sentiment  shapes,  in  a  very 
considerable  degree,  popular  opinion. 

In  a  community  known  for  fair  dealing  in  business 
transactions,  and  whose  people  are  truthful,  and  their 
words  fitly  chosen  and  properly  spoken,  a  liar  stands  a 
poor  chance,  because  he  is  readily  known  in  his  true 
character  as  a  dishonest  man.  Not  unfrequently  a  liar 
has  found  himself  so  out  of  place  among  honest  and 
veracious  people  that  he  has  been  known  "  to  turn  over 
a  new  leaf  and  commence  telling  the  truth,"  and  in  due 
time  to  establish  a  fair  reputation  as  a  good  citizen. 
This  may  be  ascribed  mostly  to  the  moral  standard  of 
the  community  in  which  the  prevaricator  lived. 

What  is  true  of  a  community  or  neighborhood  is 
likewise  true  of  a  school.  In  effecting  a  general  refor- 
mation, the  teacher  is  advised  first  to  create  a  moral 
sentiment,  and,  in  an  effective  way,  bring  the  public 

opinion  of  the  school  up  to  that  standard. 
13 


188    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  children  generally  pre- 
fer to  have  the  good-will  of  their  schoolmates  rather 
than  their  ill-will.  Thus  the  many  are  united  as  a  band 
to  uphold  the  unsteady  one.  One  little  kernel  of  conii- 
dence  planted  in  a  boy's  soul  oftentimes  works  wonders 
in  his  whole  life.  To  know  that  he  is  trusted,  and  that 
there  are  those  who  grieve  and  are  sad  at  thought  of  his 
bad  actions,  has  been  the  means  of  lifting  many  a  pupil 
to  a  higher  and  purer  life. 

Here,  again,  the  teacher's  daily  life,  as  he  lives  it,  is 
the  most  potent  factor.  It  was  the  respect  that  the 
"  boys  of  Rugby  "  had  for  the  open,  manly  character 
of  Dr.  Arnold  that  kept  them  from  lying  to  him.  I 
believe  that  nearly  all  children  may  be  influenced  simi- 
larly. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Twenty-five  years  ago  there  lived  in  a  Western  town 
a  boy  ten  years  old.  His  father  worked  but  little,  and 
the  mother  "  took  in  washing  "  to  get  food  for  her  chil- 
dren. The  boy — the  eldest  child — was  called  a  "  thief 
and  a  liar  "  by  everybody.  Good  people  would  not  let 
their  children  play  with  this  "  vagabond,"  as  he  was  fre- 
quently called. 

A  stranger  was  induced  by  a  few  prominent  citizens 
to  open  a  select  school  in  this  town,  but  he  was  cau- 
tioned by  several  responsible  persons  not  to  admit  this 
notorious  boy  to  school:  First,  he  would  spoil  better 
children  ;  and,  secondly,  his  parents  were  unable  to  pay 
his  tuition.  Strange  as  it  may  appear,  the  stranger  de- 
cided that,  if  this  boy  should  come  to  school,  he  would 
admit  him,  for  a  while  at  least. 

The  first  week  of  school  came  and  went,  and  the 


ONLY  A  BOY.  189 

"  notorious  boy  "  was  still  running  the  streets  ;  but  the 
second  Monday  morning  there  he  was,  sure  enough, 
ragged,  dirty,  bright,  and  noisy — a  regular  "  Ishmaelite," 
so  to  speak,  among  the  other  boys.  School  being  called, 
he  came  in  and  took  a  front  seat.  Presently  the  teacher 
went  to  him  and  asked  him  very  quietly  and  very 
pleasantly  "  if  he  wanted  to  come  to  school."  "  You 
bet,"  was  the  emphatic  reply.  The  boy,  apparently,  re- 
ceived little  attention  that  day,  yet  the  teacher  had 
taken  a  pretty  correct  measure  of  him  before  school 
closed  in  the  afternoon.  Enough  to  say  that  on  Wed- 
nesday this  boy  was  sent  on  an  errand  to  purchase  "  chalk 
for  the  blackboard,"  a  little  service  that  he  performed 
faithfully,  and,  by  Friday  night,  he  was  behaving  him- 
self as  well  as  any  other  pupil  in  school. 

Next  Monday  morning  he  was  at  school  early,  and 
helped  the  teacher  make  the  fire  in  the  stove.  It  was 
then  and  there  that  that  boy  made  the  following  manly 
confession : 

"  Teacher,"  he  said,  "  everybody  says  that  I  he  and 
steal,  and  that  I  am  a  mean  boy ;  nobody  trusts  me  but 
you.  I  want  to  be  good,  and  won't  you  like  me  if  I  am 
a  good  boy?"  With  tears  glistening  in  his  eyes,  the 
teacher  took  the  child  by  the  hand,  and  then  said  "  Yes." 

Years  passed  by.  This  boy  learned  a  good  trade, 
became  an  industrious  citizen,  and,  at  last  accounts,  was 
the  possessor  of  a  pleasant  home,  surrounded  by  an  in- 
teresting family. 

The  reader  must  not  infer  that  all  similar  cases  can 
be  cured  in  this  way,  but  I  am  firmly  of  the  opinion 
that  a  very  large  percentage  of  cases  may  be  reformed 
under  proper  and  judicious  treatment. 


190    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

The  old  adage,  "  Give  a  dog  a  bad  name  and  hang 
him,"  is  just  as  true  of  people.  W hen  self-respect  is 
lost,  all  is  lost,  and  there  is  nothing  Jeft  to  build  on,  or 
to  build  to. 

One  of  the  worst  phases  of  lying  is  that  in  which 
one  pupil  tells  a  deliberate  falsehood  in  regard  to  an- 
other pupil.  When  an  offense  of  this  character  is  com- 
mitted, the  offender  should  suffer  for  it ;  and  also  when 
a  pupil  lies  and  willfully  persists  in  the  lie  afterward. 
In  such  cases  it  is  best  to  inform  the  parent  or  guardian 
of  the  child's  conduct.  This  delicate  duty  frequently 
requires  the  rarest  tact  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher  to 
avoid  giving  offense  to  the  parent. 

The  precise  nature  of  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted 
must  be  determined  mainly  from  the  circumstances  con- 
nected with  each  case  as  it  arises. 

OTHER   BOYS. 

There  are  yet  other  peculiar  boys  that  deserve  a 
passing  notice. 

Who  has  not  seen  the  "  sharp,  sly,  foxy  boy  "  ?  An 
innocent  look,  yet  beneath  it  all  so  many  signs  that  told 
the  story  of  his  character.  And  "  the  noisy  boy,"  too ! 
Not  mischievous,  only  noisy  !  He,  too,  is  to  be  tamed 
down.     A  quiet,  dignified  teacher  can  calm  him  easily. 

The  real  "  saucy  boy,"  who  delights  in  worrying  the 
teacher,  and  whose  memory  is  exceedingly  treacherous, 
is  generally  more  than  a  match  for  a  peevish,  fretful 
teacher.  He  is  continually  "forgetting,"  "speaking 
without  permission,"  or  in  some  way  or  other  troubling 
the  teacher.  What  he  should  not  say,  he  says,  and  he 
seldom  does  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time. 


ONLY  A  BOY.  191 

As  such  cases  are  not  hard  to  manage  if  the  teacher 
keeps  her  temper,  we  dismiss  them  to  introduce  the 
"  scary  boy  "  ! 

Some  children  are  excessively  timid ;  so  timid,  in- 
deed, that,  if  the  teacher  only  look  at  them,  they  cry. 
I  was  met  on  the  street  recently  by  a  man  who  said 
"  that  his  little  boy  had  been  in  school  two  weeks,  and 
yet  the  teacher  would  not  let  him  recite  a  lesson. " 
"• Strange,"  I  replied,  "but  there  is  a  mistake  some- 
where. Let  us  hunt  it  up."  lie  did  not  have  time, 
but  I  went  at  once  to  the  room. 

The  child  was  there.  He  had  not  recited  a  lesson. 
If  the  teacher  but  looked  at  him,  he  cried  aloud ;  if 
she  stepped  in  the  direction  of  his  seat,  he  would  scream 
with  all  his  might.  What  could  the  teacher  do  ?  She 
was  a  lady  of  the  kindest  disposition  ;  her  children  loved 
her,  and  by  all  of  them  she  was  called  their  "  school- 
mother."  But  this  particular  little  fellow  was  "  scary  "; 
it  appeared  to  be  born  in  him,  and  he  could  not  help 
it.     Upon  my  advice  he  was  taken  away  from  school. 

Usually,  timid  children  soon  get  over  their  sensi- 
tiveness, especially  if  the  teacher  treats  them  with  kind- 
ness and  makes  them  feel  that  they  have  nothing  to 
fear. 

In  dealing  with  "hard  or  exceptional  cases,"  there 
are  two  ideas  the  teacher  must  ever  keep  in  view :  1. 
The  good  of  the  individual  pupil.  2.  The  welfare  of  the 
school.  The  welfare  of  the  many  must  not  be  sacrificed 
for  the  few  or  the  one.  Back  of  sympathy — back  of  all 
devices — is  the  question  of  obedience.  To  this,  as  the 
highest  tribunal,  all  cases  of  disobedience,  if  they  will 
not  yield  to  milder  remedies,  must  be  brought. 


192    PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION  PRACTICALLY  APPLIED. 

The  good  teacher  always  keeps  his  reserve  power 
well  in  hand,  and  those  who  will  not  submit  must  suffer 
the  consequences  of  their  own  folly.  One  of  the  most 
lasting  lessons  a  system  of  education  can  inculcate  is, 
that  transgression  brings  its  own  punishment. 

The  teacher,  standing  as  it  were  at  the  threshold 
of  the  child's  life,  sees  two  paths  widely  divergent,  and 
along  which  the  child  must  choose  one  or  the  other  and 
travel.  One  leads  out  into  the  street — to  vicious  habits, 
lying,  theft,  drunkenness,  disgrace,  poverty,  and  wretch- 
edness ;  a  life  without  an  aim,  without  a  purpose ;  a 
wretched  failure  !  The  other  conducts  to  success  in  busi- 
ness, secures  the  confidence  and  approbation  of  mankind, 
elevates  the  race,  dignifies  humanity,  and  brings  its  pos- 
sessor happiness  and  contentment  in  old  age. 

"With  such  conceptions  of  life  the  true  teacher  works 
to  realize  his  highest  ideals,  and,  as  his  race  is  run  and 
he  falls  at  last,  he  points  out  the  path  to  a  more  glorious 
reward  for  the  "  wayward  boys." 

Only  a  Boy. 

1.  A  very  peculiar  boy.  5.  The  fighting  and  swearing  boy. 

2.  The  petted  and  spoiled  boy.  6.  The  lazy  boy. 

3.  The-  fidgety  boy.  7.  The  lying  boy. 

4.  The  sullen  boy.  8.  Other  boys. 


E   END. 


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-*-^    S.  Monroe,  A.  B.,   Department  of  Pedagogy  and  Psychology, 

State  Normal  School,  Westfield,  Mass.     $2.00. 

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plete  its  collection  in  that  theme  ? 


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5 


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plies  is  the  most  valuable  of  recent  contributions  on  the  psychological  phases  of  child 
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VOLUMES  NOW  HEADY. 

1.  The  Philosophy  of  Education.    By  Johann  K.  F.  Rosenkranz.  Doc 

tor  of  Theology  and  Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Konigsberg. 
Translated  by  Anna  C.  Brackett.  Second,  edition,  revised,  with  Com- 
mentary and  complete  Analysis.    $1.50. 

2.  A  History  of  Education.     By  F.  V.  N.  Painter,  A.M.,  Professor  of 

Modern  Languages  and  Literature,  Roanoke  College,  Va.    §1-50. 
3    The  Kise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Universities.     With  a  Sur- 
vey op  Medieval  Education.    By  S.  S.  Laurie,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of 
the  Institutes  and  History  of  Education,  University  of  Edinburgh.    $1.50. 

4.  The  Ventilation  and  Warming  of  School  Buildings.    By  Gilbert 

B.  Morrison,  Teacher  of  Pnysics  and  Chemistry,  Kansas  City  High  School. 
$1.00. 

5.  The  Education  of  Man.    By  Frtt:drich  Froebel.     Translated  and  an- 

notated by  W.  N.  Hailmann,  A.M.,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools, 
La  Porte,  Ind.    $1.50. 

6.  Elementary  Psychology   and    Education.     By   Joseph    Baldwin, 

A.M.,  LL.  D.,  author  of  "  The  Art  of  School  Management."    $1.50. 

7.  The  Senses  and  the  Will.    (Part  I  of  "The  Mind  of  the  Child.") 

By  W.  Preyer,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Translated  by  H.  W. 
Brown,  Teacher  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Worcester.  Mass.    $1.50. 

8.  Memory:  What  it  is  and  How  to  Improve  it.      By  David  Kay, 

V.  R.  G.  S.,  author  of  "Education  and  Kducators,11  etc-     $1  50. 

9.  The  Development  of  the  Intellect.    (Part  II  of  M  The  Mind  op  the 

Child.")  By  W.  Preyer,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Translated  by 
H.  W.  Brown.    $1.50. 

10.  How  to  Study  Geography.      A  Practical  Exposition  of  Methods  and 

Devices  in  Teaching  Geography  which  apply  the  Principles  and  Plans  of 
Bitter  and  Guvot.  Bv  Francis"  W.  Parker,  Principal  of  the  Cook  County 
(Illinois)  Normal  School.     $1.50. 

11.  Education  in  the  United  States:  Its  History  from  th«>  Earliest 

settlements.  By  Richard  G.  Boons,  A.  M  .  Proieeeor  o-  Pedagogy, 
Indiana  University.     $1  50. 

12.  European  Schools;  or,   What  I  Saw   in  the  Schools  op  Germany, 

France,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  Bv  L.  R.  Klemm,  Ph.  D.,  Principal 
of  the  Cincinnati  Technical  School.     Full/illustrated.    $2.00. 

13.  Practical  Hints  for  the  Teachers  of  Public  Schools.    By  George 

Howland,  Superintendent  of  the  Chicago  Public  Schools.    $1.00. 

14.  Pestalozzi:  His  Eife  and  Work.    By  Roger  de  Guimps.     Authorized 

Translation  from  the  second  French  edition,  by  J.  Russell,  B.  A.  With  an 
Introduction  by  Rev.  R.  H.  Quick,  M.  A.    $1,50. 

15.  School  Supervision.     By  J.  L.  PtCKABD,  LL.  D-    $1.00. 

16.  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe.    By  Helene  Lange,  Berlin 

Translatedand  accompanied  by  comparative  statistics  by  L.  R.  Klemm.  $1.00. 

17.  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.       By   Robert  Herbert  Quick, 

M.  A.,  Trinity  College.  Cambridge.  Only  authorized  edition  of  the  work  ...s 
rewritten  in  [BOO.     $1-50. 

18.  A  Text-Book  in  Psychology.   Bv  Johann  Friedrich  Hkbbart.    Trans- 

lated by  If  AU0AJMT  K,  Smith.    $1.00. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES.— (Continued.) 


19.  Psychology  Applied  to  the  Art  of  Teaching.     By  Joseph  Baldwin, 

A.M.,  LL.D.     $1.50. 

20.  Kousseau's  Emile ;   or,  Treatise  on  Education.    Translated  and  an- 

notated by  W.  11.  Payne,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.    $1.50. 

21.  The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children.    By  Felix  Adler.    $1.50. 

22.  English  Education  in  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools,, 

By  Isaac  Suarpless,  LL.D.,  Preeiuuit  ot  liaverford  College.    $1.00. 

23.  Education  from  a  National  Standpoint.  By  Alfred  Fouillee.  $1.50. 

24.  Mental  Development    of  the    Child.      By  W.  Preter,  Professor  of 

Physiology  in  Jeaa.     Translated  by  li.  W.Brown.     $1.00. 

25.  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History.     By  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

University  of  Michigan.     ^1.50. 

26.  Symbolic  Education.    A  Commentary  on  Froebel's  "  Mother-Play." 

By  Susan  E.  Blow.    ^1.50. 

27.  Systematic  Science  Teaching.      By  Edward  Gardnier  Howe.    $1.50. 

28.  The  Education  of  the  Greek  People.     By  Thomas  Davidson.    $1.50. 

29.  The  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public-School  System.    By 

G.  H.  Martin,  A.M.    $1.50. 

30.  Pedagogics  of  the  Kindergarten.  By  Fkiedrich  Froebel.  12mo.  $1.50. 

31.  The  Mottoes  and  Commentaries  of  Freidrich  Froebel's  Mother- 

Play.    By  Susan  E.  Blow  and  Henrietta  R.  Eliot.    $1.50. 

32.  The  Songs  and    Music   of  Froebel's    Mother-Play.    By  Susan  E. 

Blow.    $1.50. 

33.  The  Psychology  of  Number,  and  its  Application  to  Methods  of 

Teaching  Arithmetic.  By  James  A.  McLellan,  A.M.,  and  John 
Dewey,  Ph.  D.     $1.50. 

34.  Teaching  the  Eanguage-Arts.      Speech,  Beading,  Composition.    By 

B.  A.  Hinsdale,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.     $1.00. 

35.  The  Intellectual  and  Moral  Development  of  the  Child.    Part  I. 

Containing  Chapters  on  Perception,  Emotion.  Memory,  Imagination, 
and  CovsciorsNESs.  By  Gabriel  Compaire.  Translated  from  the 
French  hy  Mary  E.  Wilson.     $1.50. 

36.  Herbart's  A  BC  of  Sense-Perception,  and  Introductory  "Works. 

By  William  J.  Eckofp,  Ph.  D.,  Pd.D.    $1.50. 

37.  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education.    By  William   T.   Harris, 

A.  M  ,  LL.  D.     $1.50. 

38.  The  School  System  of  Ontario.    By  the  Hon.  George  W.  Boss,  LL.D., 

Minister  of  Education  for  the  Province  of  Ontario.    $1.00. 

39.  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching.    Py  James  Johonnot.    $1.50. 

40.  School  Management  and  School  Methods.     By  Joseph  Baldwin. 

$1.50. 

41.  Froebel's    Educational    Laws    for    all    Teachers.     By   James   L. 

Hughes,  Inspector  of  Schools,  Toronto.     $1.50. 

42.  Bibliography  of  Education.    By  Will  S.  Monboe,  A.  B.    $2.00. 

43.  The  Study  of  the  Child.    By  A.  R.  Taylor,  Ph.  D.     $1.50. 

44.  Education  by  Development.    By  Friedrich  Froebel.    Translated  hy 

Josephine  Jarvis.    $1.50. 

45.  Eetters  to  a  Mother.     By  Susan  E.  Blow.    $1.50. 

46.  Montaigne's  The  Education  of  Children.     Translated  hy  L.  E.  Rec- 

tor, pn.  d.    $1.00. 

47.  The   Secondary   School   System   of    Germany.     By  Frederick  E. 

Bolton.    $1.50. 

other  volumes  in  preparation. 


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THE   ANTHROPOLOGICAL   SERIES. 


IV. 


NOW    READY. 

y^HE    BEGINNINGS    OF    ART.      By   Ernst 

•*        Grosse,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Freiburg 
A   new  volume   in  the  Anthropological  Series,  edited  by  Pro* 
fessor  Frederick  Starr.      Illustrated.     i2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 
"  This  book  can  not  fail  to  interest  students  of  every  branch  of  art,  while  the  gen- 
eral reader  who  will  dare  to  take  hold  of  it  will  have  his  mind  broadened  and  enriched 
beyond  what  he  would  conceive  a  work  of  many  times  its  dimensions  might  effect." — 
Brooklyn  Eagle. 

"  The  volume  is  clearly  written,  and  should  prove  a  popular  exposition  of  a  deeply 
interesting  theme."— Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

OMAN'S    SHARE    IN  PRIMITIVE    CUL- 
TURE.   By  Otis  Tufton    Mason,  A.  M.,  Curator  of  the 
Department  of  Ethnology  in  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum.    With  numerous  Illustrations.      i2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 
"A  most  interesting  rhunii of  the  revelations  which  science  has  made  concerning 

the  habits  of  human  beings  in  primitive  times,  and  especially  as  to  the  place,  the  duties, 

and  the  customs  of  women." — Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

HTHE   PYGMIES.      By  A.  de  Quatrefages,  late 
-*■       Professor  of  Anthropology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Paris.     With  numerous  Illustrations.      i2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 
"  Probably  no  one  was  better  equipped  to  illustrate  the  general  subject  than  Quatre- 
fages.    While  constantly  occupied  upon  the  anatomical  and  osseous  phases  of  his  sub- 
ject, he  was  none  the  less  well  acquainted  with  what  literature  and  history  had  to  say 
concerning  the  pygmies.  .  .  .  This  book  ought  to  be  in  every  divinity  school  in  which 
man  as  well  as  God  is  studied,  and  from  which  missionaries  go  out  to  convert  the  human 
being  of  reality  and  not  the  man  of  rhetoric  and  text-books."— Boston  Literary  World. 

'THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  WRITING.     By  W.  J. 
•*■       Hoffman,  M.  D.    With  numerous  Illustrations.    i2mo.    Cloth, 

$1.75. 

"The  author,  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  our  ethnologists,  is  well  qualified  for  the 
inquiry,  and  the  result  of  his  labors  is  not  only  a  monument  to  his  industry,  but  a  most 
valuable  contribution  to  our  national  history  as  well.  It  is  a  book  full  of  interest  even 
to  the  general  reader,  while  to  the  scientist  it  is  a  rich  mine  of  facts." — Chicago  Even- 
ing Post. 

IN   PREPARATION. 

THE  SOUTH  SEA    ISLANDERS.     By  Dr.  Schmeltz. 

THE  ZUNJ.    Ey  Frank  Hamilton  Cushino. 

THE  AZTECS.     By  Mrs.  Zelia  Nuttall. 


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w. 


EALTH  AND  PROGRESS.  A  Critical  Exam- 
ination of  the  Labor  Problem.  The  Natural  Basis  for  Indus- 
trial Reform,  or  How  to  Increase  Wages  without  Reducing 
Profits  or  Lowering  Rents  :  the  Economic  Philosophy  of  the 
Eight-Hour  Movement.  By  George  Gunton.  i2mo.  Paper, 
50  cents  ;  cloth,  $i.co. 

"  The  reader  will  find  a  statement  of  the  labor  problem  as  founded  upon  the  eternal 
principles  that  underlie  and  the  laws  which  govern  human  progress,  not  only  through 
the  wages  system,  where  eight  hours  are  practicable  and  feasible,  but  the  laws  which 
govern  social  evolution  in  all  its  stages,  from  savagery  to  the  highest  phases  of  civiliza- 
tion. ' — Christian  at  Work. 

SPEECHES  AND  ADDRESSES  OF  WILLIAM 

**~J      McKINLE  Y.     From  his  Election  to  Congress  to  the  Present 

Time.     Compiled  by  Joseph  P.  Smith.      With    Portraits   on 

Steel  of  the  Author  and  Others.     8vo,  650  pages.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

These  selections,  sixty-five  in  number,  embrace  a  wide  range  of  topics  of  absorbing 
public  interest,  and  include  twenty-five  speeches  devoted  to  the  tariff  question  in  all  its 
aspects,  and  others  on  silver,  F'ederal  elections,  pensions,  and  the  public  debt,  civil- 
service  reform,  the  Treasury  surplus  and  the  purchase  of  bonds,  the  direct  tax  bill, 
etc.  The  orator  whose  views  aie  thus  presented  is  the  best  authority  of  his  party  on 
most  of  the  matters  considered.  An  elaborate  analytical  Index  gives  the  volume  an 
encyclopedic  character,  which  will  be  especially  appreciated  at  the  present  time  by  the: 
student  of  whatever  political  faith. 

AT  URAL  RESOURCES   OF  THE    UNITED 

STA  TES.  By  Jacob  Harris  Patton,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  au- 
thor of  "  Four  Hundred  Years  of  American  History,"  etc.  Re- 
vised, with  Additions.     8vo.     Cloth,  gilt  top,  $3.00. 

"  Covers  everything,  from  the  rarest  minerals  to  seedless  oranges.  ...  A  most 
comprehensive  volume  "—Philadelphia  Press. 

"  A  valuable  summary  of  our  native  wealth.  It  treats  not  only  of  the  precious 
metals,  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum,  but  of  natural  pas,  building  stones,  fire  clay,  kaolin, 
abrasive  materials,  mineral  springs,  salt  deposits,  grasses,  orchard  fruits,  deposits  of 
gypsum,  marl  and  phosphate,  wild  game,  and  fur-bearing  animals.  There  are  chapters 
on  irrigation,  health  resorts,  resources  in  water  power  and  in  lands.  I  he  section  on 
our  fisheries  is  deeply  interesting,  and  contributes  fresh  sceuesto  the  general  panorama 
of  our  national  prosperity.  .  .  .  No  reader  of  this  work  can  consistently  despair  of  the 
future  of  the  great  republic."— Philadelphia  Ledger. 

C  TUDIES  IN  MODERN  SOCIALISM  AND  LA- 
^       BOR  PROBLEMS.     By  T.  Edwin   Brown,  D.  D.     i2mc. 

Cloth,  $1.25. 
"This  volume  by  Dr.  Brown  is  one  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject.     It  should  be 
studied  by  all,  in  order  that  any  discussion  of  it,  whether  in  the  pulpit  or  in  private  con- 
versation, should  be  intelligent." — Cincinnati  Christian  Advocate. 


N 


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/CHAPTERS  IN  POLITICAL   ECONOMY.     By 
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Contents. — The  Field  and  Importance  of  Political  Economy  ;  The  Pay- 
ment of  Labor ;  On  the  Increase  of  Wages  ;  Effect  of  Machinery  on  Labor ; 
On  the  Meaning  and  Causes  of  Va'ue  ;  A  Measure  of  Value  ;  Money  and  its 
Uses ;  Decline  in  the  Value  of  Gold  and  Silver ;  The  Money  of  the  Future  j 
The  Good  and  Evil  of  Banking ;  The  Financial  Panic  of  1873  5  Relation  of 
Hanks  to  Speculators  ;  Influence  of  Credit  on  Prices  ;  On  Legal  Interference 
with  the  Loan  of  Money,  Payment  of  Labor,  and  Contracts  of  Corporations  ; 
Advantages  of  Exchange  ;  Taxation. 

PROTECTION    VERSUS  FREE  TRADE.     The 

-*          Scientific  Validity  and  Economic  Operation  of  Defensive  Duties 

in  the  United  States.    By  Henry  M.   Hoyt.    i2mo.     Cloth, 

$2.00  ;  paper,  50  cents. 

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subject  in  a  judicial  spirit,  with  great  fullness. 


P 


ROTECTION  TO  HOME  INDUSTRY.  Four 
Lectures  delivered  in  Harvard  University,  January,  1S85.  By 
R.  E.  Thompson,  A.  M.,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania.    8vo.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

"  In  these  lectures  Professor  Thompson  has  stated  the  essential  arguments  for  pro- 
tection so  clearly  and  c  >mi=actly  that  it  is  not  strange  that  they  have  produced  a  deep 
impression.  .  .  .  The  loot  ires  as  printed  form  a  neat  volume,  which  all  fairly  informed 
students  may  read  with  interest."  —Philadelphia  J  tern. 


T 


ALKS  ABOUT  LABOR,  and  concerning  the  Evolu- 
tion of  Justice  between  Laborers  and  Capitalists.  By  J.  N. 
Larned.     i2mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

The  author's  aim  has  been  to  find  the  direction  in  which  one  may  hope- 
fully look  for  some  more  harmonious  and  more  satisfactory  conjunction  of 
capital  with  labor  than  prevails  in  our  present  social  state,  by  finding  in  what 
direction  the  rules  of  ethics  and  the  laws  of  political  economy  tend  together. 


H 


AND  BOOK  OF  SOCIAL  ECONOMY ;  or,  The 

Worker's  ABC.     By  Edmond  About.     i2mo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

Contents. — Man's  Wants;  Useful  Things;  Production;  Parasites; 
Exchange  ;  Liberty  ;  Money  ;  Wages  ;  Savings  and  Capital ;  Strikes  ;  Co- 
operation ;   Assurance,  and  some  other  Desirable  Novelties. 


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